Estratégia nacional de biodiversidade e plano de ação índia

Estratégia nacional de biodiversidade e plano de ação na Índia
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Jornal para a conservação da natureza.
Este artigo usa a análise de conteúdo para revisar políticas e documentos relevantes que promovem ou dificultam a geração e uso de dados de biodiversidade na África Oriental. A revisão constatou que todos os países da região estão comprometidos com convenções internacionais e regionais que enfatizam a proteção e a conservação da biodiversidade. Alguns dos outros impulsionadores da informática de biodiversidade incluem as políticas nacionais relacionadas à biodiversidade dos países, embora sejam poucas, que destacam a necessidade de sistemas de gerenciamento de dados de biodiversidade. No entanto, as políticas existentes são deficientes em termos de políticas para o gerenciamento de dados sobre biodiversidade. Sugestões para assegurar o sucesso da informática da biodiversidade na África Oriental incluem: (i) Evitar sobreposições, mas promovendo complementaridades dentro e / ou entre diferentes instituições e partes interessadas envolvidas na conservação da biodiversidade; (ii) Colocar em prática documentos políticos claros, completos e simples relativos à gestão de dados sobre biodiversidade.
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Virunga
Fundação BERTHA, Fundação BRITDOC e Violet Films presentes.
AGORA STREAMING
PARQUE NACIONAL DO SUPORTE VIRUNGA.
"Relatório investigativo urgente e drama inesquecível," Virunga "é um trabalho de ternura e suspense de parar o coração."
"Apresentando o melhor e o pior da natureza humana, o" Virunga "de von Einsiedel arranca uma narrativa surpreendentemente lúcida de uma rede doentia de suborno, corrupção e violência."
NOVA YORK TIMES, PICK CRITIC.
". bastante ação, pathos, suspense, vilões venais, heróis robusto e gorilas ameaçados de uma dúzia de filmes de ficção".
Destinatário de TRÊS nomeações 2015 Cinema Eye:
Excelente característica de não-ficção.
Receptor de uma indicação ao prêmio British Independent Film 2014:
2015 indicado ao Oscar®.
Melhor Documentário.
Vencedor do prêmio Creative Art Emmy® de 2015 para Melhor Fotografia.
VIRUNGA é a incrível história real de um grupo de pessoas corajosas arriscando suas vidas para construir um futuro melhor em uma parte da África esquecida do mundo e uma emocionante exposição das realidades da vida no Congo.
Nas profundezas florestais do leste do Congo fica o Parque Nacional de Virunga, um dos lugares mais biodiversos da Terra e lar dos últimos gorilas de montanha remanescentes do planeta. Neste ambiente selvagem, mas encantado, uma pequena equipe de guardas florestais - incluindo um ex-soldado infantil, um guarda de gorilas órfãos e um conservacionista dedicado - protege este patrimônio mundial da UNESCO de milícias armadas, caçadores ilegais e os escuros. forças que lutam para controlar os ricos recursos naturais do Congo. Quando o recém-formado grupo rebelde M23 declara guerra, um novo conflito ameaça a vida e a estabilidade de todos e de tudo que eles trabalharam tanto para proteger, com os cineastas e os participantes do filme pegos no fogo cruzado.
Uma poderosa combinação de jornalismo investigativo e documentário sobre a natureza, VIRUNGA é a incrível história real de um grupo de pessoas corajosas arriscando suas vidas para construir um futuro melhor em uma parte da África esquecida do mundo e uma exposição emocionante das realidades do mundo. vida no Congo.
Do diretor Orlando von Einsiedel e produtor executivo Leonardo DiCaprio.
ASSISTA VIRUNGA NA NETFLIX.
Fundação BERTHA, Fundação BRITDOC e Violet Films presentes.
Um filme de mídia de grãos.
Diretor / Produtor.
Orlando von Einsiedel.
VIRUNGA é o documentário de estreia do longa metragem de Orlando. É uma vitrine apta de sua habilidade como um contador de histórias convincente, com um olhar cinematográfico para imagens impressionantes e um nariz para investigações de longo alcance. Tendo dirigido anteriormente filmes premiados que abrangem África, Ásia, as Américas e o Ártico, e cobrindo todos os modos De histórias de uma escola de skate no Afeganistão até o rastreamento e prisão de piratas na África Ocidental, não é exagero dizer que Orlando tem um futuro brilhante pela frente. Ele tem sido particularmente elogiado por sua capacidade de extrair histórias pessoais íntimas e combiná-las com um olho para uma estética visual poderosa. Para VIRUNGA, ele foi indicado ao Oscar, ao BAFTA e ao Guild of America Award do diretor. Ele co-administra a produtora de filmes londrina Grain Media.
Produtor / Produtor de Impacto.
Joanna é uma premiada produtora e produtora de impacto da Violet Films; atualmente a única empresa no Reino Unido que combina estratégia de impacto social e produção de filmes. A Violet é uma consultoria ética especializada em campanhas de divulgação sob medida e maximizando o potencial de mudança social para projetos de filmes e mídia. Joanna tem uma vasta experiência em documentários, tendo dirigido e produzido documentários sobre política social e política e trabalhou recentemente em alguns dos documentários de maior impacto do mundo. Mais recentemente Joanna produziu o Oscar e indicado ao BAFTA VIRUNGA.
Cinematográfico.
DOP Franklin Dow começou sua carreira aos 18 anos de idade, trabalhando como estagiário de câmera para seu pai. Ao lado de seus estudos no Instituto de Arte de Bournemouth, ele continuou a ajudar os negócios da família em Londres, além de assistir e operar câmeras para uma série de pequenos canais. Em 2005 graduou-se com honras de primeira classe em Cinematografia, ganhando também dois Prêmios Comerciais para Estudantes da Kodak. Desde então, ele construiu um portfólio de trabalho excepcionalmente amplo, desde o documentário Drama e Verite até os comerciais e de moda. O trabalho de Franklin foi exibido em inúmeros festivais, incluindo Sundance, LFF, SXSW e Camerimage, reunindo vários prêmios ao longo do caminho, incluindo o Best Cinematography.
Masahiro tem mais de 25 anos de experiência em cinema e televisão; Colaborador íntimo de Danny Boyle, editou alguns de seus filmes mais elogiados, Shallow Grave, Trainspotting, A Life Less Ordinary e The Beach. Além disso, ele editou recursos recentes, The Duchess e Bel Ami, bem como o premiado Hi-Lo Country e o longa-metragem We Are Together (Thina Simunye).
Patrick Jonsson é um compositor / engenheiro de música e graduado pela Berklee College of Music em Boston. Em 2013 Patrick marcou seus dois primeiros filmes dramáticos, incluindo Bends, dirigido por Flora Lau, que teve sua estréia como parte da seleção oficial de 'Un Certain Regard' no Festival Internacional de Cannes, onde a música foi elogiada na Variety: " O diálogo esparso e a música assombrada conferem um efeito alienador; outras contribuições do artesanato também são excelentes. " Recentemente, Patrick recebeu uma indicação para 'Melhor Trilha Sonora Original' por Bends no Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival. Ele também compôs música para inúmeros curtas-metragens, documentários e comerciais, incluindo o premiado curta-metragem Skateistan: Live and Skate Kabul. que foi uma seleção oficial em Sundance e SXSW. Além disso, ele ajudou compositores em vários filmes, como Thor, Ascensão do Planeta dos Macacos, Minha Semana com Marilyn, Brave, Gambit e The Imposter. Virunga é a primeira trilha sonora do documentário de Patrick.
Produtor executivo.
Howard G Buffett, CEO da Fundação Howard G. Buffett.
O Sr. Buffett gerencia a Fundação Howard G. Buffett, uma fundação de caridade privada. Ele supervisiona uma fazenda da família de 1.500 acres no centro de Illinois e fazendas em Nebraska com seu filho. Ele supervisiona três fazendas de pesquisa operadas pela fundação: 1.400 acres no Arizona, 4.400 acres em Illinois e 9.200 acres na África do Sul.
O Sr. Buffett atualmente atua nos Conselhos Corporativos da Berkshire Hathaway, Inc., uma holding de investimentos; The Coca Cola Company, a maior empresa de bebidas do mundo, a Lindsay Corporation, líder mundial na fabricação de produtos de irrigação agrícola; e Sloan Implement, um distribuidor privado de equipamentos agrícolas John Deere na América do Norte. Buffett atuou nos conselhos da Archer Daniels Midland, um dos principais processadores de alimentos do mundo; Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc., a maior engarrafadora da Coca-Cola no mundo; A ConAgra Foods, um dos maiores fabricantes de serviços alimentícios da América do Norte e fornecedores de alimentos para varejo e a Agro Tech Foods, uma empresa de fabricação de alimentos de capital aberto na Índia.
Em 1997, o Sr. Buffett tornou-se membro da Comissão de Debates Presidenciais; recebeu o Prêmio Águia Asteca do Presidente do México em 2000, a mais alta honraria concedida a um cidadão estrangeiro pelo governo do México; Em 2002, foi reconhecido pelo Instituto Interamericano de Cooperação para a Agricultura como um dos mais destacados na agricultura; Em 2005, recebeu o Prêmio de Jornalista Distinto do Will Owen Jones; Em 2007, ele foi nomeado Embaixador da Boa Vontade das Nações Unidas contra a Fome em nome do Programa Mundial de Alimentos; Em 2011, o Sr. Buffett foi premiado com o World Ecology Award e o George McGovern Leadership Award; Em 2012, ele recebeu o Prêmio Meritorious Service to Humanity da National Farmers Union, o Prêmio de Liderança Global da Universidade de Columbia, um Doutorado Honorário de Humane Letters da Pennsylvania State University, o Prêmio Líder em Agricultura da Agriculture Future of America e o Prêmio de Serviço Especial da Associação para Agricultura Internacional e Desenvolvimento Rural; e em 2013, recebeu o Chairman's Award da National Geographic Society e o International Quality of Life Award da Auburn University. Ele foi reconhecido pelo CIMMYT em 2014 por suas contribuições para a agricultura. Ele viajou para 130 países e escreveu oito livros sobre conservação, vida selvagem e condição humana.
Produtor executivo.
Jon Drever é um prolífico cineasta e fundador e proprietário da Grain Media. Ele dirigiu centenas de horas de conteúdo em várias plataformas. Ele cravou os dentes no mundo dos esportes de ação, fazendo filmes de skate para se divertir antes de co-fundar a produtora multipremiada Grain Media em 2006.
Predominantemente um diretor de comerciais, Jon dirigiu trabalhos para algumas das maiores marcas do mundo, incluindo Nike, New Balance e Nestlé. Seus comerciais são lisos, mas todos eles têm um toque humano e suavidade para eles.
O primeiro longa de Jon como diretor, SuperBob, está em fase de pós-produção e está em sua vida há mais de três anos. Este projeto começou como um curta - escrito e dirigido por Jon e foi feito em um par de dias com um de seus amigos mais antigos, Brett Goldstein, e recebeu grande aclamação da crítica.
Produtor executivo.
Jess Search, CEO, BRITDOC.
Jess executou alguns dos filmes mais fortes do BRITDOC, incluindo o indicado ao Oscar® Dirty Wars, Who is Dayani Cristal, We Are Together e The End of the Line. Anteriormente, Jess foi um editor de comissionamento na Channel 4 TV no Reino Unido por 5 anos.
Produtor executivo.
Maxyne Franklin, Diretora da Fundação, BRITDOC.
Maxyne é diretora da Fundação, liderando a lista de filmes do BRITDOC. Ela tem o ator indicado ao Oscar®, The Square, e vários projetos vencedores de prêmios como The Possibilities são os dois vencedores do Sundance, Hell and Back Again e Afghan Star e Grierson. vencedores Movendo-se para Marte e Aqui Johnny entre outros.
Compositor & amp; Produtor musical.
Canção Original "Nós Não Iremos"
J. RALPH (nascido em Nova York, EUA, 1975) é um compositor, cantor / compositor e produtor indicado ao Oscar®, de Nova York, cuja música já vendeu mais de 10 milhões de discos em todo o mundo e alcançou o primeiro lugar no ranking dos 100 maiores. em mais de 22 países. Como fundador da produtora de música premiada internacionalmente The Rumor Mill, J. Ralph escreveu e produziu a música para inúmeros artistas ganhadores do Grammy, filmes vencedores do Oscar®, orquestras sinfônicas, The United Nations e The President ofthe United States, Barack Obama.
Descrito pelo The Hollywood Reporter como o "produtor de filmes de documentários", J. Ralph é amplamente considerado por muitos como tendo um profundo impacto no meio. Nos últimos 6 anos, J. Ralph escreveu e produziu a música para 4 dos filmes vencedores ou indicados ao Oscar®, incluindo MAN ON WIRE (2009), THE COVE (2010) HELL AND BACK AGAIN (2012) e CHASING ICE (2013) ) pelo qual ele recebeu uma indicação ao Oscar® de Melhor Canção Original “BEFORE MY TIME” interpretada por Scarlett Johansson e Joshua Bell.
J. Ralph é o compositor e produtor da música original de Virunga, “We Will Not Go”, interpretada por Salif Keita, Youssou Ndour & amp; Fally Ipupa. A música é a primeira a apresentar todas as 3 lendas musicais africanas na mesma faixa e foi gravada em 3 continentes, 4 países e em 5 idiomas.
J. Ralph é membro da Universidade de Yale, membro da Academia de Artes e Ciências Cinematográficas, e o único compositor a ganhar dois AI. C.P. consecutivos. prêmios. Vários trabalhos do Sr. Ralph estão incluídos na coleção permanente do Museu de Arte Moderna na cidade de Nova York.
Entre em contato com #TeamVirunga!
Últimas do Twitter.
RT @gorillacd: A equipe e os órfãos gorilas no Centro Senkwekwe de # Virunga compartilham um vínculo único. Andre Bauma se descreve como os dois ... Leia mais. 15 fevereiro RT @gorillacd: Com o fim de 2017, queremos agradecer a todos que apoiaram o Parque Nacional de Virunga este ano. Leia mais. 3 Jan RT @gorillacd: É com o coração pesado que, apesar das tentativas determinadas por rangers e @GorillaDoctors, o Parque Nacional de Virunga perdeu em ... Read More. 15 de dezembro RT @_PraveenBalla: profundamente movido. Acabei de ver o @virungamovie @gorillacd. Tiremos o chapéu para as pessoas, os rangers e os destemidos Emmanuel de Me… Read More. 15 Dez RT @Manuel_Bustelo: Apoie os guarda-parques de gorillacd para salvaguardar a @UNESCO WHS #Virunga. Assista @virungamovie no #Netflix hoje & amp; #TakeAction httв¦ Leia mais. 18 de outubro RT @gorillacd: retratado aqui é um gorila de montanha infantil da família Humba. Interessado em visitar os gorilas da montanha de Virunga para o seu Leia mais. 18 out RT @weeksbell: Filme incrivelmente poderoso da batalha para salvar o nat mais velho da África. gorilas do parque e da montanha t. co/FC0pEv5fSu @ vi… Leia mais. 7 de outubro
O QUE VOCÊ PODE FAZER.
1. Por favor, espalhe a palavra sobre o parque e o filme.
Realmente, é simples assim. Tweet, post, blog, pin, o que quer que seja sobre o filme e os problemas em seu coração. Quanto mais pudermos divulgar o que a SOCO Internacional fez no leste do Congo, mais chances teremos de impedir que um comportamento semelhante se repita no futuro. Aqui estão todas as nossas alças e hashtags para ajudá-lo:
Twitter: @virungamovie - Certifique-se de incluir #Virunga #TeamVirunga nos seus tweets.
2. Inscreva-se neste site.
Por favor, inscreva-se no nosso site com o seu endereço de e-mail para que possamos mantê-lo atualizado sobre novos desenvolvimentos relacionados com as questões em jogo ou coisas que você pode fazer para ajudar a proteger o Parque Nacional de Virunga.
O Parque Nacional de Virunga precisa de apoio e financiamento contínuos. Gostaríamos de perguntar a qualquer um que tenha se comovido com os problemas do filme ou que quer ajudar a apoiar os corajosos guardas florestais de Virunga em seu trabalho vital para visitar o próprio site do parque e doar diretamente para eles:
4. Verifique seus investimentos.
Se você tem muito dinheiro ou pouco, você pode se surpreender ao saber que parte disso pode ser investido na SOCO International. Verifique seus portfólios e ativos de investimento, mas também seus fundos de pensão. Muitos deles irão amarrar em SOCO provavelmente sem você saber. Você pode escrever para a empresa e perguntar se eles pretendem realmente ficar longe de Virunga para sempre e o que farão para proteger o parque para o futuro.
5. Visite Virunga!
Turismo reaberto no Parque Nacional de Virunga no início de 2014 e continua a se fortalecer, recebendo endossos de publicações como Travel + Leisure, NYT e Town and Country para citar alguns!
Ao visitar o Parque Nacional de Virunga como turista, você não apenas anima o comércio, mas também apóia a alternativa de energia limpa do parque, a Aliança Virunga. Comece a planejar sua viagem hoje em visitvirunga.
Verifique seus investimentos.
Muitos fundos e investimentos financeiros de todo o mundo vinculam-se à Soco International sem o conhecimento do público.
ARQUIVO BAIXO DO DOWNLOAD.
Dicas #TakeAction.
Procurando algumas dicas sobre como #TakeAction? Depende inteiramente de você o que você decidir fazer com seus investimentos, mas se você gostaria de se envolver positivamente com os acionistas da SOCO, então aqui está o que sugerimos! Escreva para o gestor do fundo de pensão da sua empresa de investimento / gestor de fundos éticos e peça-lhes para:
1. Envolva-se positivamente com a SOCO Internacional para salvaguardar o futuro do parque. Sua voz dentro de uma empresa é poderosa e eles devem se preocupar com suas preocupações.
2. Solicitar à SOCO International que realize uma investigação independente adequada sobre todas as alegações de irregularidades, respondendo por sua preocupante falta de supervisão enquanto opera na RDC.
3. Pedir à SOCO Internacional que faça um compromisso absoluto com o governo da RDC e a UNESCO de nunca explorar no Parque Nacional de Virunga, independentemente do seu Estatuto de Patrimônio Mundial, mas também se comprometer com um plano de saída que proteja adequadamente o bloqueio. a permissão de bloco não é simplesmente vendida).
Quando você se desconectar, por que não pedir ao acionista para confirmar o recebimento de sua carta e um resumo de como pretendem se envolver positivamente com o SOCO?

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Gestão da Qualidade do Ar na Índia.
A análise completa das partes interessadas da gestão da qualidade do ar na Índia.
Análise das Partes Interessadas da Gestão da Qualidade do Ar na Índia.
GESTÃO DA QUALIDADE DO AR NA ÍNDIA.
A Índia é uma economia em desenvolvimento que enfrenta o desafio de equilibrar o desenvolvimento econômico com o bem-estar ambiental e social. Em meio a todas as outras preocupações ambientais urgentes, a poluição do ar está surgindo como uma das ameaças ambientais mais assustadoras que o país enfrenta hoje. A poluição do ar não é apenas uma questão ambiental, mas também tem implicações na saúde relacionadas à mortalidade para os seres humanos. Portanto, a Índia está sob imensa pressão global e nacional para melhorar a qualidade do ar e abordar esta questão com seriedade.
Apesar da urgência, a abordagem fragmentada do governo na solução do problema está levando a benefícios não sustentados de curto prazo e a uma estrutura fragmentada de gerenciamento da qualidade do ar. O ar é um bem público; Portanto, a identificação e compreensão de sua base de múltiplas partes interessadas e sua contribuição para a estrutura de AQM são fundamentais na construção de uma estrutura robusta de gerenciamento da qualidade do ar para o país.
O projeto - "Análise das Partes Interessadas da Gestão da Qualidade do Ar na Índia", é uma tentativa de fornecer um comentário abrangente sobre a atual estrutura da "Gestão da Qualidade do Ar" no país.
O objetivo geral deste relatório foi identificar as várias organizações de interessados ​​no domínio da gestão da qualidade do ar na Índia, determinar o domínio de atividade dessas organizações, identificar sobreposições existentes e interligações entre elas, avaliar seus esforços em relação aos objetivos declarados. analisar as deficiências do sistema e, assim, fazer recomendações concretas ao mesmo tempo em que propõe uma estrutura enxuta de AQM para o país.
Este relatório do projeto fornece uma visão geral holística da situação atual da estrutura de gerenciamento da qualidade do ar predominante no país, ao mesmo tempo em que cita insights úteis sobre as principais iniciativas tomadas pelas principais partes interessadas nesse domínio. Esta análise é o primeiro estudo a ser realizado neste campo com o único objetivo de facilitar uma maior compreensão do quadro na Índia e estudar áreas potenciais de desenvolvimento no que diz respeito ao fortalecimento do sistema. Além disso, a análise aprofundada da estrutura estabeleceu a pedra fundamental para propor um melhor Quadro de Gestão da Qualidade do Ar para a Índia. O quadro robusto proposto é a primeira tentativa de representar esquematicamente todos os intervenientes da rede AQM e é de enorme importância para todos os intervenientes envolvidos ativamente na melhoria da qualidade do ar na Índia.
1.1 Fontes de poluição do ar na Índia.
1.1.1 Poluição Veicular.
1.1.2 Poluição do Ar Industrial.
1.1.3 Fontes domésticas de poluição atmosférica.
1.2 Abordagem Regulatória para o Controle da Poluição.
1.3 Gestão da Qualidade do Ar na Índia - Uma Visão Geral.
3.0 REVISÃO DA LITERATURA.
5.0 OBSERVAÇÃO E ANÁLISE.
5.1 Mapeamento das partes interessadas do Marco de Gerenciamento da Qualidade do Ar.
5.2 Leis de Prevenção da Poluição Ambiental na Índia.
5.3 Stakeholder - Judiciário indiano.
5.3.1 O papel do Judiciário na Proteção ao Meio Ambiente.
5.3.2 A intervenção do Supremo Tribunal na melhoria da qualidade do ar em Deli: Um estudo de caso.
5.3.3 Revisão do papel do judiciário em questões ambientais.
5.4 Stakeholder - Ministries Involved.
5.4.1 Ministérios envolvidos diretamente na estrutura da Gestão da Qualidade do Ar.
5.4.2 Ministérios envolvidos indiretamente no quadro da Gestão da Qualidade do Ar.
5.5 Partes interessadas & # 8211; Agências governamentais.
5.5.1 Conselho Central de Controle de Poluição (CPCB)
5.5.2 Placas de Controle de Poluição do Estado (SPCB)
5.5.3 Autoridade de Poluição Ambiental (Controle de Prevenção) para a Região da Capital Nacional (EPCA)
5.5.4 Perda de Ecologia (Prevenção e pagamento de Compensação) Autoridade para o Estado de Tamil Nadu.
5.5.5 Comissão de Planejamento.
5.5.6 Outras Agências Governamentais (Indiretamente Envolvidas)
5.6.1 Associação Indiana para o Controle da Poluição do Ar (IAAPC)
5.6.2 Sociedade dos Fabricantes de Automóveis da Índia (SIAM)
5.6.3 Suzlon Powered PALS (Sociedade de Amantes de Ar Puro)
5.6.4 Confederação da Indústria Indiana (CII)
5.6.5 Federação das Câmaras de Comércio e Indústria Indianas (FICCI)
5.6.6 ASSOCHAM (Câmaras Associadas de Comércio e Indústria da Índia)
5.6.7 Parceria para Ar Interior Limpo (PCIA)
5.6.8 Revisão de Associações.
5.7 Institutos Acadêmicos e de Pesquisa.
5.7.2 Revisão do Trabalho dos Institutos Acadêmicos / de Pesquisa.
5.8 Organizações Não Governamentais.
5.8.1 Centro de Ciência e Meio Ambiente (CSE)
5.8.2 O Instituto de Energia e Recursos (TERI)
5.8.3 Iniciativa Clean Air - Ásia (CAI - Ásia)
5.8.4 Alternativas de Desenvolvimento (DA)
5.8.6 Revisão de ONGs.
5.9 Agências Internacionais e Organizações Bilaterais.
5.9.1 Organização Mundial da Saúde (OMS)
5.9.2 Instituto de Efeitos na Saúde (IES)
5.9.3 Banco Mundial (BM)
5.9.4 Agência de Proteção Ambiental dos Estados Unidos (US EPA)
5.9.5 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
5.9.6 Serviços de Assessoria em Gestão Ambiental (ASEM)
5.9.7 Outras organizações internacionais que trabalham neste domínio.
5.9.8 Revisão do papel das organizações internacionais / bilaterais.
5.10 Partes interessadas de mídia.
5.10.2 Centro CMS ENVIS.
5.10.3 Outras partes interessadas importantes na mídia.
5.10.4 Revisão do papel da mídia.
5.11.1 Mapa de poluição do IFMR.
5.11.2 UrbanEmissions. Info.
5.12 India Inc. Partes interessadas.
5.12.2 Revisão do trabalho pela India Inc.
6.2 Proposta de Estrutura de Gestão da Qualidade do Ar para a Índia.
8.1 Anexo I: Padrões Nacionais de Qualidade do Ar Ambiente (NAAQS) (revisado em 1994 e 1998)
8.2 Anexo II: Padrões Nacionais de Qualidade do Ar Ambiente (revisado em 2009)
1.0 INTRODUÇÃO À POLUIÇÃO DO AR.
A poluição do ar tem sido uma importante fonte de preocupação para a Índia, uma economia em desenvolvimento, que está lutando para encontrar um equilíbrio entre o desenvolvimento, por um lado, e a proteção do meio ambiente, por outro. Para este efeito, a Índia reconhece os fundamentos do desenvolvimento sustentável como a pedra angular para o progresso econômico sustentado de uma nação e está trabalhando para abordar a questão toda importante da gestão da qualidade do ar. Este relatório é a primeira tentativa de fornecer uma análise aprofundada do quadro de gestão da qualidade do ar da Índia. Este relatório realiza uma revisão abrangente de todas as partes interessadas, direta ou indiretamente, afetando o sistema e identifica áreas potenciais de melhorias para uma estrutura robusta de gestão da qualidade do ar para o país. O objetivo final deste relatório é projetar uma estrutura de gerenciamento de qualidade do ar enxuta e robusta para a Índia, que ajudará a Índia a cumprir sua missão de melhorar a qualidade do ar.
1.1 Fontes de poluição do ar na Índia.
Na Índia, a poluição do ar exterior é restrita principalmente às áreas urbanas, onde os automóveis são os principais contribuintes, seguidos pela poluição nas indústrias e usinas termelétricas. Além da rápida industrialização, a urbanização resultou no surgimento de centros industriais sem um crescimento correspondente na capacidade regulatória e nos mecanismos de controle da poluição no país. O alto influxo de população para as áreas urbanas, o aumento nos padrões de consumo e o desenvolvimento urbano e industrial não planejado agravaram ainda mais o problema da poluição do ar. As fontes de poluição do ar na Índia podem ser categorizadas principalmente sob os três seguintes títulos:
3. Fontes domésticas.
1.1.1 Poluição Veicular.
A poluição veicular é uma das fontes mais significativas para o aumento da carga de emissão de vários poluentes na atmosfera. A seguir, são identificados os principais fatores que levam ao aumento da poluição veicular:
1. Projeto de veículo pobre.
3. Qualidade de combustível inferior e adulteração de combustível.
4. Inadequada infra-estrutura de transporte público em massa e rápida.
5. Demanda de viagem ineficiente, gerenciamento de tráfego e planejamento de capacidade.
6. Infraestrutura rodoviária e ferroviária deficiente.
7. Crescimento descontrolado da população de veículos em áreas urbanas.
8. Inspeção inadequada e facilidade de manutenção.
1.1.2 Poluição do Ar Industrial.
Há muitas razões para o aumento da poluição do ar industrial no país. Abaixo estão listadas algumas das razões responsáveis ​​pelo aumento da emissão de fontes industriais:
1. Má qualidade do combustível (carvão, diesel, gasolina, óleo combustível)
2. Emissões tóxicas e perigosas de poluentes atmosféricos provenientes de indústrias químicas (pesticidas, intermediários de corantes e corantes, produtos farmacêuticos, etc.) especialmente localizadas em estados industriais (Gujarat, Maharashtra, A. P. e Tamil Nadu).
3. Uso de carvão de alta cinza para geração de energia.
4. Sistema inadequado de prevenção e controle da poluição na indústria de pequena / média escala (S. M.S) (forno de tijolos, fundição, triturador de pedra etc.)
5. Má conformidade do padrão na indústria de pequena / média escala.
6. Large number of polluting diesel ‘Gensets’ operating in commercial area.
1.1.3 Domestic Sources of Air Pollution.
Mainly four different types of cooking fuels are used in this country: biomass fuel (Wood, cow – dung cake, agricultural waste, coal etc.); liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); kerosene and a mixture of these. The primary source of indoor air pollution from domestic sources is through burning of biomass for cooking. Liquid and gaseous fuels such as kerosene and bottled gas, although not completely pollution-free, are many times less polluting than these unprocessed solid fuels. Burning such fuels produces large amounts of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined space of the home a perfect recipe for high exposures. About 95% of the rural population in India still relies primarily on biomass fuels (dung, crop residues, and wood)[2] (Smith, 2000). It is the burning of these fuels which leads to indoor air pollution. It has been estimated that about half a million women and children die each year from indoor air pollution in India.[3](Smith, 2000)
1.2 Regulatory Approach towards Control of Pollution.
India has been following the ‘Command and Control’ (CAC) approach for constraining polluting activities from each source by setting uniform standards for technologies, processes and emissions. By enforcing standards and regulating the emissions, the government seeks to abate pollution, while this approach is effective to keep the pollution under control; however, it doesn’t provide any incentive for the polluter to stop polluting. It has been observed through several empirical studies that CAC approach is sub-optimal as it doesn’t account for social costs in entirety i. e. they do not in general yield optimal pollution-abatement outcomes which equate the social marginal benefit of abatement with its social marginal cost (Sajal Ghosh) [4]
A number of economic instruments have been introduced to internalize the external costs of pollution, make the polluter pay, and at the same time minimize the cost of a given level of abatement under given conditions with regard to production and abatement costs. Tradable permits, emission and effluent charges, subsidies for competitive outputs, and sustainable environment friendly inputs are all examples of ‘economic instruments’, combination of which along with taxes not only generate revenue but also provide incentives for environmental improvements. India is looking forward to formulate the suitable combination of these instruments to both penalize the polluter and incentivize pollution abatement.
1.3 Air Quality Management in India – An Overview.
Air, being a public good, has numerous stakeholders which form part of its quality management framework. Due to its public character, air is also subject to a number of negative externalities or the ‘free rider effect’, as it is both non-exclusive and non-rivalrous to all. It is for this reason its protection is vital and a framework for its management quintessential. The air quality management framework germinated with the enactment of The Air (Prevention and Control) Act 1981 and The Environment (Protection) Act 1986, which were enacted for safeguarding the environment. The scope for development of this framework was provided in both these acts. Ever since, the ‘Air Quality Management Framework in India’ has been constantly evolving.
The intent of the sovereign to tackle air pollution with both hands is clearly underlined in the twelfth plan approach paper of the planning commission, which states that “continuous improvement in ambient air quality must be achieved through regulatory control over emissions, increasing awareness about civic liability, using state-of-the-art technology and global best practices so as to achieve the standard set by the National Ambient Air Quality, by the end of the Twelfth Plan. Policy intervention should facilitate industrial symbiosis with respect to environmental pollution based on the principle ‘polluter must pay’”.
Air pollution if not controlled, is all set to become the most daunting environmental challenge yet to be faced by India, given its poor air quality management framework. In proof of the statement above, Environmental Performance Index[5] 2012 ranking of countries, conducted by environmental research centers at Yale and Columbia University, ranked India last in the indicator on ‘Air (effects on human health)’.The dismal result of India in this ranking suggests the prevalent toxic air conditions in India which will lead to future health implications. The World Health Organization has found that due to the poor air quality, ‘Acute Respiratory Infections’ were one of the most common causes of deaths in children under 5 in India, and contributed to 13% of in-patient deaths in paediatric wards in India.[6]
This situation re-emphasises the pressing need to counter the detrimental effects of air pollution by strengthening the incompetent air quality management framework in the country.
AQM aims to maintain the quality of the air that protects human health and welfare but also provides protection of animals, plants (crops, forests, natural vegetation), ecosystems, materials and aesthetics, such as natural levels of visibility. AQM is a tool which enables governmental authorities to set objectives to achieve and maintain clean air and reduce the impacts on human health and the environment. Governmental authorities, in collaboration with other stakeholders, can determine the individual steps of the implementation of this process according to:
1. local circumstances with respect to background concentrations of air pollutants and technological feasibility;
2. cultural and social conditions; e.
3. financial and human resources available.
An effective AQM strategy is dependent on a number of factors. These include emission inventories, air quality monitoring networks, air quality prediction models, exposure and damage assessments, as well as health and environment based standards. Along with these factors are a range of cost-effective pollution control measures and the legislative powers and resources to implement and enforce them.
In the wake of long term health impacts of air pollution, India’s intent has been to enhance its scale and scope in the field of air quality monitoring and planning; its capacity to monitor and assess the problem of air pollution remains abysmally weak, which impedes nationwide planning and action. The monitoring data available provides a very fragmented picture of the status of air quality in our cities. On a nationwide scale, very few criteria pollutants are monitored on a regular basis, making risk assessment difficult. The planners and the policy makers in India do not have a complete understanding of the whole range of local situations to assess the exposure levels. Therefore, poor data quality, weak institutional capacity to assess pollution sources and the absence of an effective legal framework for air quality management are the reasons for ad hoc and fragmented planning.
The ambient air comprises various particulates and gaseous pollutants, such as NOx, SOX, CO, Ozone, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM) and a variety of other volatile organic compounds (VOCs), some of which could be severely detrimental to health of humans, plants and animals.
According to the CSE Report on ‘Managing Air Quality’, the overriding concern for India today is the very high levels of particulate matter (PM) of different size fraction, coming from various sources. A joint report of World Health Organization’s (WHO), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) among others called Air Pollution in Megacities of Asia, 2002, shows that since 1990, there has been a consistent increase in PM10 levels across the Asian region, which shows a distinct regional pattern. The Boston-based Health Effects Institute (HEI) reports that annual mean PM10 levels tend to be higher in lower-income south Asian — mainly Indian — cities compared to middle or high-income Asian cities, including Bangkok, Busan, Hong Kong and Seoul.
The effects of inhaling particulate matter that have been widely observed in humans and animals include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, birth defects, and premature death. The size of the particle is a main determinant of where in the respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled. Because of their small size, particles on the order of.
10 micrometers or less (PM10) can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs such as the bronchioles or alveoli. Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus, but particulate matter smaller than about 10 micrometers, referred to as PM10, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause other health problems. The health risk assessment of the various pollutants is an important research topic which still needs to be studied in detail.
Therefore, it has become important to reinforce the air quality monitoring framework in cities to assess the risk of air pollution, to formulate appropriate policies to control it and to create awareness and sensitise people towards the health implications of this grave issue.
In the past, there have been several researches to strengthen the environmental framework and address the issue of air pollution by conducting monitoring studies, source apportionment studies, emission inventories, reviewing the ambient air standards, dispersion modeling, health impact studies, pollution control strategy study, etc. However, there exists no research study which identifies all the stakeholders of air quality management in the country, provides a holistic review of these stakeholders – their initiatives and roles in the system, identifies gaps and existing inter-linkages between the various government and non - government actors and recommends future course of action for improvement of the framework on air pollution control in the country. This research paper addresses all the above stated issues to formulate a comprehensive commentary on the consolidated present day air quality management framework of the country and proposes a lean AQM framework for the country.
2.0 OBJECTIVES.
1. To prepare a comprehensive inventory of stakeholder organisations , directly or indirectly involved with air quality management in India.
2. To study the activity domain of various organisations and identify existing overlaps and inter-linkages.
3. To review the present framework and provide recommendations for all the stakeholders.
4. To recommend a lean air quality management framework based on the review.
3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.
Analysing the AQM policy framework of the country required an in depth study of all the government and non-government actor-stakeholders of the system. To gauge government’s orientation towards the issue of air quality management, an extensive scrutiny of the 11 th five year plan, planning commission’s approach paper for 12 th year plan, recommendation report on environment for 12 th plan was carried out. Subsequent to which, CPCB’s Annual Report 2011 was analysed. ‘National summary report on air quality monitoring, emission inventory and source apportionment study for Indian cities’ produced by CPCB was studied to understand the current state of affairs of the emission inventory regime in Indian context.
Further, to understand the AQM framework in the country, the CAI-ASIA’s report on air quality in India, CAI - Asia and ADB Report on Urban Air Management were reviewed thoroughly. This report provided a bird’s eye view of the system prevalent in the country. To understand the civil society perspective on this contentious issue, report by CSE-‘Managing Air’ was read. Health Effect Institute’s report on Public Health and Air Pollution in Asia (PAPA) project, which aims to understand the short term exposure to air pollution and daily mortality in two Indian cities, was also synthesized to gauge the health risks associated with air pollution.
To better understand the policy, institutional and regulatory framework of the AQM in India various reports was analysed. Report on ‘Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010’, critically analysed the functioning and structure of CPCB. It identified various institutional capacity as a big restraint in the functioning of the regulatory body. Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests (Rajya Sabha Committee), 192nd report on functioning of central pollution control board. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament’s 57 th report tabled on April 27 th 2012 in the Lok Sabha was also studied to understand the review of MoEF’s functioning by the committee.
Based on the above literature review and assessment – analysis, conclusions and recommendations were made for making the AQM framework more robust and a lean framework was proposed.
4.0 METHODOLOGY.
To comprehensively analyse the present-day framework of air quality management in India, various stakeholder groups were identified, on the basis of their contribution to the AQM in the country. Subsequently, organisations in these stakeholder groups were selected on the basis of the prominence of their impact on the framework of the country. The initiatives of these organisations in the domain of AQM were listed, while identifying their roles, inter-linkages and areas of overlap in the system. An exhaustive review of the organisations and stakeholder groups was carried out. The critiqued assessment provided the basis for conclusions and recommendations of the report.
Various reports in relation to air quality management, produced by government and non-government actors were accessed and analysed. Information on public domain was assessed for all the stakeholders, to understand their roles, identify existing overlaps and prepare a comprehensive commentary on their initiatives, through the medium of ‘world wide web’. Air quality experts at TERI University were also consulted personally for their expert knowledge in this domain. Based on the information collected above, feedback for a lean air quality management framework for India was formulated.
5.0 OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS.
5.1 Stakeholder mapping of the Air Quality Management Framework.
Stakeholders were mapped in groups according to their profiles and roles played in this sector. Given below is a brief description of the categorized clusters:
1. Judiciary: Judiciary forms an all-important organ of the AQM framework. It ensures that both the executive and legislative bodies perform their roles as expected. It is empowered to provide justice in times of conflict while safeguarding the interest of the environment and the fundamental rights of the citizens of the country at large.
Judicial stakeholders in AQM in India comprise - The Supreme Court, High Courts, District Courts, National Green Tribunal, and National Environment Tribunal.
2. Ministries Involved Directly : These Ministries are the most prominent stakeholders of the AQM India framework. They are directly responsible in the decision making process for forming policy mandates in this domain. They undertake communications within themselves for formulating standards for air pollution control and thereby impact the system substantially. Ministry stakeholders directly involved comprise – MoEF, MoES, MoSRTH, MoH&FW, MoS&T, MoP and MoPNG.
3. Ministries Involved Indirectly : These Ministries as not as significant in impacting the framework as the ones listed above. However, they supplement the work of the ministries directly involved in the decision making and impact the decision making indirectly. Ministry stakeholders indirectly involved comprise – MoUD , MoCI , MoC, MoF, MoHIP, MoM, and MNRE.
4. Government Agencies Involved Directly : Prominent executive bodies performing the role of regulators/policy planners for air pollution prevention, prevalent in both the centre and the state were identified. These agencies play an active role in AQM in India. Stakeholders identified under this domain are – CPCB, SPCBs/PCCs, Planning Commission, EPCA, IMD, State Environment and Forest Departments.
5. Government Agencies Involved Indirectly : These executive agencies assist in air pollution prevention in an indirect way. Stakeholders identified under this domain are – BEE, PPAC, TIFAC, and Municipal Corporations.
6. Academic and Research Institutes : These comprise institutes which enrich the AQM framework through their specialised research knowledge in technical, health and policy related fields in relation to Air Quality/Air Pollution.
7. Non-Governmental Organisations : Various Non-Government Organisations and civil society organisations have contributed to the evolution of the air quality management framework of India. These NGOs have been engaged actively in policy advocacy and community engagement/outreach and campaigns development in this field. Their presence strengthens the network to a large extent.
8. Media Houses: Several media organisations have undertaken responsibility on engaging in environmental issues which impact the society at large. The communication outreach efforts by these organisations are concerted to this end.
9. Associations: The associations are representatives of a consortium of enterprises/industries/individuals working towards a common developmental cause. The voice of the associations is powerful as it speaks for a large representative sample of people. Associations play a pronounced role in the AQM framework of India. Stakeholders identified in this cluster are – IAAPC, SIAM, FICCI, CII, ASSOCHAM, PCIA, PALS.
10. International Agencies / Bilateral Organisations : Various international organisations, bilateral agencies, etc actively engage in aiding the development of AQM framework in the country. They provide resources such as financial aid, technical expertise, etc to assist India towards sustainable development.
11. India Inclusive (India Inc.): Indian, Multinational private corporate organisations and publically owned Private Sector Undertakings (PSUs) together comprise the India Inc. These stakeholders contribute immensely to the growth of the country in terms of adding to India’s GDP. However, being responsible corporate citizens, they do take steps to promote better air quality as a part of their environment protection mandate or as a part of their corporate social responsibility exercise. A few of these prominent stakeholders working on preventing and abating pollution have been identified as follows - 3M, Suzlon, Bayer Crop Science, Bharat Forge, HPCL, NTPC, Shree Cements, Tata Motors, Reliance Industries , Escorts Group, Shell, Hira Group, SAIL, Jindal Steel, IOCL Ltd.
12. Websites: There are many websites promoting ways to reduce or monitor air pollution. However, we identified two such websites which are aiding development in AQM in India, namely – urbanemissions. info and IFMR sponsored indiapollutionmap.
These stakeholder groups provide a holistic understanding of the Air Quality Management framework of the country. Figure 1.2 depicts this stakeholder mapping in a diagrammatic format.
5.2 Environmental Pollution Prevention Laws in India.
A comprehensive list of all environmental laws concerning pollution abatement and environment protection in the country, along with their short descriptions are as follows:
Indian Penal Code 1860: Chapter XIV of Indian Penal Code containing Sections 268 to 290 deals with offences affecting the public health, safety, convenience, decency and morals. Its objective is to safeguard the public health, safety and convenience by causing those acts punishable which make environment polluted or threaten the life of the people.
The Factories Act 1948 (Amendment in 1987): The Act was the first to express concern for the working environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and expanded its application to hazardous processes.
The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974: Article 252 of the Act provided for the establishment of Pollution Control Boards in the Centre and at the State levels. Under Section 3 of the Act, Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Pollution was instituted for promoting cleanliness of streams and wells in the different areas of the States.
The Water (Pollution Prevention and Control) Cess Act 1977 : The Act was adopted by the parliament to provide funds for the Central & State Pollution Control Boards. The Act empowers the Central Government to impose a Cess on water consumed by industries listed in Schedule-I of the Act.
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1981: The Act provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution including noise pollution and to establish Pollution Control Boards at the state level for this purpose. It entrusts the power of enforcing this act to the CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board).
The Environment (Protection) Act 1986: This an umbrella Act which authorizes the central government to set standards to protect and improve environmental quality, control and reduce pollution from all sources, and prohibit or restrict the setting and /or operation of any industrial facility on environmental grounds. It also confers enforcement agency with necessary punitive powers to restrict any activity detrimental to environment.
The Motor Vehicles Act 1988 (Amendment in 2000): The Act sets standards for anti-pollution control devices. It also permits the use of eco-friendly fuel including Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) in vehicles.
The Public Liability Insurance Act 1991: The Act provides for public liability insurance for the purpose of providing immediate relief to the persons affected by accident occurring while handling any hazardous substance and for matters connected therewith.
The National Environmental Tribunal Act 1995: This Act has been created to award compensation for damages to persons, property, and the environment arising from any activity involving hazardous substances.
The National Environment Appellate Authority Act 1997: The NEAA (National Environment Appellate Authority) has been created to hear appeals with respect to restrictions of areas in which classes of industries etc. are carried out or prescribed subject to certain safeguards under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986.
The Ozone Depleting Substances (Regulation and Control) 2000: Under this Act, rules have been laid down for the regulation of production and consumption of ozone depleting substances.
The National Green Tribunal Act 2010: Under this Act, National Green Tribunal was instituted on 18 th October, 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. The Tribunal is not bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but is guided by principles of natural justice.
5.3 Stakeholder – Indian Judiciary.
India’s unitary judicial system is made up of the Supreme Court of India at the national level, for the entire country and the 21 High Courts at the State level. These courts have jurisdiction over a state, a union territory or a group of states and union territories. Below the High Courts are a hierarchy of subordinate courts such as the civil courts, family courts, criminal courts and various other district courts[7]. The Supreme Court, High Courts, District Courts, National Green Tribunal and National Environment Tribunal, are all a part of the Judicial framework in India, for safeguarding the natural environment and protecting the human well-being associated with it.
Curbing environmental pollution has been one of most compelling concerns of countries across the globe. India recognises this grave concern and seeks to protect and preserve the environment from pollution while ensuring that any such act of damage done be punishable under the law of the land.
To reaffirm its commitment towards environment protection, India was party to ‘The 1972 Stockholm Declaration’ which placed the contentious issue of environment protection, promotion and conservation on the official agenda of international policy and law. India, being one of the participants and signatories to this conference, undertook the following steps in the direction of the protection and promotion of environment in order to comply with the resolution and principles of the Stockholm Conference:
1. Constitution 42nd Amendment Act, 1976.
2. Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
3. Air (Prevention and Control of pollution) Act, 1981.
4. Environment Protection Act, 1986.
5.3.1 The role of Judiciary in Environment Protection.
The constitution of the country empowers the judiciary to resolve disputes/conflicts, affirm that the laws enacted are in conformity with the constitutional provisions and ensure satisfactory implementation and compliance to the laws enacted by the legislature by both the executive and the public at large. The role of judiciary in India has become more pronounced in the recent past in resolving environmental disputes, as there have been numerous instances of claims and counter-claims over the contentious issue of management of natural resources which have led to judicial interventions in the environmental domain. The incompetence of the state agencies and their rather laggard decision making process have forced the civil society and citizens at large to approach the courts for suitable remedies regarding their grievances on environmental matters. Therefore, the judiciary in the country plays a very important role in environmental governance process.
5.3.2 Supreme Court’s intervention in improving the air quality in Delhi: A case study [8]
The Supreme Court’s involvement in policies to curb air pollution in Delhi began with public interest litigation brought to the court by M. C. Mehta in the form of a petition no. 13029 filed December 17, 1985. Concerned about rising levels of air pollution and the government’s apparent lack of interest in dealing with this growing problem, Mehta asked the court to direct various government ministries and departments to implement the Air Act of 1981 in Delhi.
In 1986, in response to Mehta’s petition, the Supreme Court directed the Delhi administration to file an affidavit specifying the steps it had taken to reduce air pollution. As a result of the court’s involvement, the Delhi administration and the central government started to pay attention to the problem of air pollution. After Mehta’s petition to the court, several new environmental laws were enacted, as were policies to curtail tailpipe emissions from vehicles and to move polluting industries from Delhi. However, these policies were rarely implemented, and those that were can be characterized as largely piecemeal. There was no evidence of a comprehensive plan to tackle the growing problem of air pollution.
In early 1991, responding to the ever growing pollution concerns, the court asked MoEF to set up the first of what turned out to be three statutorily based authorities charged with the responsibility of devising policies to curb air pollution in Delhi. But the court was also motivated by its own recognition that the matters before it were highly technical, and therefore beyond its area of expertise. The court needed a group of experts to assess the issues and advise it.
The first of these committees was constituted in March. The court explained its purpose in an extended judgment dated March 14, 1991. This committee came to be known as the Saikia Committee, after its chairman, former Justice K. N. Saikia, who had recently retired from the Supreme Court. Other members of the committee were M. C. Mehta, N. S. Tiwana (then-chairman, CPCB), and S. Girdharlal (representative of the Association of Indian Automobile Manufacturers). The court directed the committee to (i) assess technologies available for vehicular pollution control elsewhere in the world and in India; (ii) assess low-cost alternatives for operating vehicles at reduced pollution levels in Indian metropolitan areas and make specific recommendations on the administrative and legal regulations required for implementing these alternatives; and (iii) make recommendations on how vehicular pollution could be reduced in both the near term and the long run.
One of the Saikia Committee’s first recommendations was to phase out leaded petrol in Delhi by April 1, 1992 (Saikia Committee on Vehicular Pollution, 1991). The committee also recommended the use of CNG as an alternative vehicular fuel for three reasons: it polluted less, cost less, and was more widely available in the country than petrol or diesel.
In September 1994, Parliament passed the Motor Vehicles Amendment Act to promote the use of alternative fuels, such as batteries, solar power, and CNG. Motorists using these alternative fuels were not required to obtain permits from the state transport authorities and, for a specified period, were allowed to determine their own freight, fares, and hours of operation.
On the recommendation of the Saikia Committee, on August 12, 1994, the Supreme Court mandated the phase-out of leaded fuel in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, and Madras by April 1995 and for the entire country by April 2000 (court order, October 21, 1994). The deadline to supply unleaded petrol in Delhi was met on time. During this period the Supreme Court also ordered that the sulphur content in diesel supplied in Delhi be reduced from 1% to 0.5% by April 1, 1996, and to 0.25% by April 1, 1998 (Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority, 2001). This was the first time that the Supreme Court issued fuel quality specifications. Starting in 1996, the Supreme Court began to act to force the government to implement its relocation policies for large and heavy polluting industries from Delhi.
The city’s air quality nevertheless continued to deteriorate, and on November 8, 1996, the Supreme Court issued a suo moto notice to the Delhi government to submit an action plan to control the city’s air pollution (Agarwal et al . , 1996). In 1996 and 1997, in response to direct orders of the Supreme Court, both the Delhi government and the central government finally developed action plans to curtail pollution in Delhi. These were the first comprehensive policies on air pollution control.
The Delhi government responded to pressure from the Supreme Court and in October 1997 developed a policy to phase out old vehicles and encourage the use of CNG. But with elections looming, it withdrew this policy on February 4, 1998. Once again the Supreme Court stepped in and forced the Delhi government to act on the policy it had announced. On December 3, 1997, MoEF issued the ‘White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with an Action Plan’ (Ministry of Environment and Forestry, 1997).
On January 7, 1998, soon after the release of the white paper, the Supreme Court directed the central government to set up the third of the statutory committees established under Section 3(3) of the Environment Protection Act. This was called the Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA). According to Harish Salve, who acted as amicus curiae to advise the court in the Delhi litigation, EPCA was set up directly in response to government complaints that the Supreme Court was exceeding its authority and making policy decisions in place of the government.
EPCA was asked to monitor the progress of the white paper, develop new policies to curb vehicular air pollution, and serve as a fact-finding body for the court. EPCA believed that more drastic measures were needed to reduce pollution, including the use of CNG, and that the conversion of buses, taxis, and autos could take place without significant additional cost to vehicle owners. It suggested that any additional costs could be met through state subsidies.
EPCA’s plan was converted into a mandate by the Supreme Court in its order dated July 28, 1998. As a direct result of this order, over the course of the next four years, the commercial vehicles of Delhi were gradually converted to CNG. Progress was uneven for a variety of reasons, including the availability of CNG fuelling stations, parts, and buses, and the reluctance of various key players at critical points. There were rough patches. When bus operators who had failed to order CNG buses or convert to CNG were not allowed to operate, the public expressed its concern through strikes and protests. And various high-level commissions and committees made last-minute efforts to head off the Supreme Court’s orders. The court refused to reconsider its basic decision, however, and as a result had to referee such issues as which sectors had priority access to CNG supplies in case of shortages. Non-complying diesel buses were subject to fines, and by December 2002, all diesel city buses converted to CNG.
In hindsight, The Supreme Court proved itself to be sufficiently above the day-to-day pressure of politics that it could stand firm on the remedies recommended to it by EPCA, and at the same time it made some reasonable, short-term adjustments to adapt to various realities during the difficult transition to CNG. This combination of steadfastness and adaptability helped ease a complicated political and economic shift. Therefore, the court’s important contribution was to push the government in two significant ways: to implement existing policies and to develop new policies to deal with air pollution which led to a stark positive difference in Delhi’s air quality.
5.3.3 Review of the role of the judiciary in environment matters[9]
While understanding the role of judiciary in environmental governance, scholars have concentrated on judicial review power and thereby attributed judicial intervention to the failure of other organs in performing their conventional duties (Pal 1997; Thakur, 1997, Ramesh, 2002). They argue that the intervention of the judiciary in environmental governance is a part of the constitutional duties of the Court to uphold the rule of law, enforcement of individual rights and protecting the propriety of the Constitution. The interventions have been largely confined to removing structural impediments to the implementation of environmental laws, which has provided a space for judicial intervention in environment protection. In such circumstances, the Courts have assumed the affirmative executive powers of issuing directions, appointing commissions, collecting and verifying information, monitoring and supervising the running of public institutions to discharge their Constitutional obligations for the protection and improvement of environment. The relaxation of the locus standi principle and encouraging petitioners to bring environmental litigation by the apex court has been hailed as one of the most important factors for the evolution of environmental jurisprudence in India (Deshpande, 1992; Sathe, 1999; Jariwala, 2000; Desai and Muralidhar, 2001).
Of late however, this process of Judicial intervention in environmental governance has been see as a violation of the principle of separation of power and against the spirit of democracy. By usurping the role of existing agencies and directing policies through its orders it has been argued that the Court risks making decisions that may not be the most efficient solutions to the cases that come before it. The most important criticism against the judicial intervention in environmental litigation has been its failure to ensure the implementation of its directions which has been viewed as a kind of challenge to the legitimacy of judicial intervention (Dembowski , 1999; Desai and Murlidhar 2001).
The most important positive implication of allowing the third party (NGOs or public spirited people) to appeal before the court on behalf of the affected party due to environmental degradation. It is the Court’s attempt to bring justice to the door step of the common man, for whom recourse is a costly exercise.
In summary, the intervention of judiciary in resolving environmental disputes has led to evolution of several new principles in the environmental governance process. The innovative methods such as entertaining post cards as litigation, allowing third party to file petition, spot visit, taking suo motu action against the polluter, deciding compensation both for environment and affected party, applying international environmental principles to domestic environmental problems have widened the scope for justice and recognition of the values of the environment and awareness among people about their environmental rights and duties. However, most of these methods have neither been followed consistently nor institutionalized to make a long term impact on environmental governance process. The Court must institutionalize the methods in the form of guidelines to ensure consistency and predictability in the remediation process. Also, the court must safeguard against judicial activism turning into judicial adventurism and therefore, must be cautious of the implications of interfering in the affairs of the other organs of the state.
5.4 Stakeholder - Ministries Involved.
5.4.1 Ministries involved directly in the Air Quality Management framework.
5.4.1.1 Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF)
The Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) is the nodal agency in the administrative structure of the Central Government for the planning, promotion, co-ordination and overseeing the implementation of India’s environmental and forestry policies and programmes. The primary concerns of the Ministry are implementation of policies and programmes relating to conservation of the country’s natural resources including its lakes and rivers, its biodiversity, forests and wildlife, ensuring the welfare of animals, and the prevention and abatement of pollution. While implementing these policies and programmes, the Ministry is guided by the principle of sustainable development and enhancement of human well-being. Ministry formulates policies and enacts legislation at the national level. Apart from headquarter at New Delhi there are six regional offices at Bangalore, Bhubaneshwar, Shillong, Bhopal, Chandigarh and Lucknow.
The Ministry of Environment Forests (MoEF) has adopted a comprehensive National Environmental Policy (NEP) 2006, based on overarching guiding principles that include among others right to development, environmental protection as an integral part of the development process, environmental standards setting, the precautionary principle and polluter pay principle, preventive action, economic efficiency, and equity. For abatement of pollution in general and air quality management in particular, various actions have been suggested which inter-alia include an integrated approach to strengthening of monitoring and enforcement of emissions standards for both point and non point sources, preparation of action plans for cities to address air pollution, promotion of R&D, formulation of national strategy for urban transport and energy conservation.[10] The Ministry co-ordinates with other key ministries to formulate regulatory framework for air pollution control under The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and The Environment (protection) Act, 1986. CPCB essentially works under the aegis of MoEF.
The Ministry also serves as the nodal agency in the country for the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP), International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and for the follow-up of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). The Ministry is also entrusted with issues relating to multilateral bodies such as the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD), Global Environment Facility (GEF) and of regional bodies like Economic and Social Council for Asia and Pacific (ESCAP) and South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC) on matters pertaining to the environment.
The Ministry takes responsibility for the following international treaties/declarations/conferences which deal with environmental pollution, to which India is already a signatory member:
2. The Stockholm Declaration 1972.
3. United Nations Conference on the Human Environment.
4. Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973 (MARPOL) (London, 1978)
5. Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer(Vienna, 1985)
6. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal, 1987)
7. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Rio de Janeiro, 1992)
8. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
9. Helsinki Protocol to LRTAP (Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) on the Reduction of Sulphur Emissions or their Transboundary Fluxes by at least 30 percent.
10. Sofia Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) concerning the Control of Emissions of Nitrogen Oxides or their Transboundary Fluxes (NOx Protocol)
11. Geneva Protocol to LRTAP(Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution) concerning the Control of Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds or their Transboundary Fluxes (VOCs Protocol)
12. Male Declaration on Control and Prevention of Air Pollution and its likely trans-boundary effects for South Asia under the SASEP ( South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme)
During the XI th Plan, an outlay of Rs. 235 crore was planned for pollution abatement out of the total allocation of Rs. 10000 crore for MoEF’s planned body of work for the duration of 2007-2012[11].
5.4.1.1.1 Initiatives and projects undertaken by the Ministry for Air Quality Management.
The Ministry has undertaken various initiatives/projects and environment protection authorities for encouraging pollution abatement across sectors, for the country as a whole. Listed below are the most prominent initiatives undertaken by MoEF in this field:
1. Environmental Impact Assessment Notification, 2006: The Ministry mandates environmental clearance as a mandatory obligation for various developmental activities undertaken in the country. Air pollution is one of the prominent agendas on the EIA notification; the clearance certification for which can only be obtained by the CPCB/SPCBs.
2. Corporate Responsibility for Environmental Protection (CREP) : MoEF launched the charter on CREP in March 2003 with the purpose to go beyond the compliance of regulatory norms for prevention & control of pollution through various measures including waste minimization, in-plant process control & adoption of clean technologies.
3. Capacity Building For Industrial Pollution Management: The project is also expected to build the technical capacity of select SPCBs for undertaking environmentally sound remediation of polluted sites.
4. National Award for Prevention of Pollution – This award was instituted in 1992 and is given to 18 large scale industrial units and 5 small scale industrial units annually for meeting pollution prevention goals and taking substantial and consistent steps for environmental improvement. The award consists of a trophy, a citation and Rs. 100000 each.
5. Pilot Emission Trading Scheme(ETS) : The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) has initiated a pilot emission trading scheme in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu in the hope that these states may begin to meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). It is based on the cap-and-trade market mechanism.[12]
6. Comprehensive Environmental Pollution Index (CEPI) for estimation of pollution load for Industrial Clusters [13] : CEPI is a rational number to characterize the environmental quality at a given location which captures the various health dimensions of environment including air, water and land. Industrial Pollution Abatement through preventive strategies.
7. Industrial Pollution Abatement through Promotion of Clean Technology and Preventive Strategies: This scheme is an amalgamation of the three on-going schemes viz. Environmental Audit, Adoption of Clean Technologies in Small Scale Industries and Environmental Statistics and Mapping, which have been continuing since eighth Five Year Plan.
8. Environmental Management in Heritage Pilgrimage and Tourist Centres including the Taj Protection: The objective of the scheme is to prevent environmental degradation of the area of heritage or pilgrimage importance through proper management and to implement schemes relating to protection of Taj Mahal. In the first phase of Taj protection, 10 projects with a total cost of Rs. 221.21 crore were approved. The scheme was kept on hold pending its independent appraisal during the 11th Plan. The Ministry has accepted the post evaluation report of NEERI, Nagpur. In order to revive the scheme in 12th Plan, the U. P Government has been requested to prepare a Comprehensive Environment Management Plan (EMP) to be integrated with various sectoral projects on the lines of EMP drawn by NEERI in their post evaluation report.
9. Common Effluent Treatment Plan: The objective of this scheme is to provide financial assistance to the small scale industries in clusters to establish/upgrade Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) for enabling them to comply with environmental discharge standards.
10. National Green Tribunal (NGT): The tribunal is for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources including enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues.
11. Establishment of Environment Protection Authorities.
I. Loss of Ecology (Prevention and Payment of Compensation) Authority for the State of Tamil Nadu to deal with pollution created by the tanneries and other polluting industries in Tamil Nadu.
II. Environment Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) for the National Capital Region for compliance relating to environmental standards, emission or discharge of pollutants, steps to control vehicular pollution, restriction of industries etc.
12. Funding Research: The Ministry funds research in multi-disciplinary aspects of pollution environment ecosystems protection, conservation and management at various universities, institutions of higher learning, national research institutes and non-governmental organizations in identified thrust areas under its Research & Development (R&D) Programme. The objective of the scheme is to generate information required to develop strategies, technologies and methodologies for better environmental management. It also aims at attempting solutions to the practical problems of resource management, conservation of natural resources and eco-regeneration of degraded areas. Further, the scheme also seeks to strengthen infrastructure to facilitate research and scientific manpower development. In order to achieve these objectives, research grants are provided in the identified thrust areas to various organizations (universities, colleges recognized by UGC, institutions of CSIR, ICAR, ICMR, ICSSR and recognized non - governmental scientific organizations) all over the country. The research guidelines were revised by the Ministry in 2006, supporting research in Environment which inter-alia includes thrust areas of research and their prioritization.
13. New Initiatives : Recent new initiatives taken up by the Ministry include Institution of – National Environmental Sciences Fellows Programmes, institution of Mahatma Gandhi Chair for Ecology and Environment, collaborative Research Programme with CSIR, new Institutions – National Environment Protection Training & Research Institute (NEPTRI).
1. MoEF plays a pivotal role in formulating policies for environment protection and pollution abatement. It is imperative for MoEF to address the issues of strengthening the present regulatory, enforcement and institutional mechanisms for a better air quality management framework in the country.
2. MoEF can fulfil these objectives by formulating a national strategy plan for air quality improvement while insisting the state governments to prepare a more localised district level air quality management strategy which is aligned with the national level strategy. These policy level interventions must be complimented by aiding the institutional agencies with necessary resources and skilled manpower to build their capacity.
3. A separate regulatory body should also be appointed to monitor the progress of these plans which must be empowered to take disciplinary actions when required. To this effect, the recommendations in the report of the sub-group for the 12 th Plan on environment do propose creation of independent National Environmental Appraisal and Monitoring Agency (NEAMA) to be established. According to the report, NEAMA would be empowered set up a new process for environmental appraisal of projects, and will monitor the observance of environmental management plans. It is conceived to be a recommendatory body, subject to final decision-making by the Environment Minister. Establishing a toothless monitoring agency will be another mistake and add more perplexity to the system. SPCBs were entitled to perform similar functions of monitoring and appraisal but with no punitive powers vested in them to ensure stricter compliance and enforcement; these regulatory agencies have been fairly incompetent from their inception.
4. MoEF shoulders immense responsibility for co-ordinating with a host of other ministries like Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Ministry of Shipping, Road, Transport and Highways (MoSRTH), Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST), Ministry of Power (MoP), Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&FW) and Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas (MoPNG) to undertake a comprehensive air quality management programme in the country. This requires MoEF to structure a permanent inter-ministerial task force with representation from all the ministries for implementing fast track policy intervention mechanism.
5. The Public Accounts Committee of Parliament in its 57 th report tabled on April 27 th 2012 in the Lok Sabha, has identified serious deficiencies and inadequacies as pointed out by the C&AG (Comptroller and Auditor General) in the implementation of environmental programmes and in the functioning of various institutions working under the Ministry of Environment & Forests[14]. MoEF must address the concerns raised by the committee on the poor completion rate of projects under its various schemes by institutionalising policy reforms that strengthen the institutional framework of other associated agencies and improve communication channels within MoEF.
6. In order to ensure better monitoring of clearance conditions at field level, MoEF must review its functioning internally and increase the number of regional offices of MoEF.
7. To fast-track the clearance and consent management, adoption of IT-based management system will be a step forward. To communicate the importance of environmental regulations and generate a wider acceptance of these norms, MoEF must plan a communications strategy to disseminate information and create awareness about these regulations amongst all stakeholders. [15]
8. Currently, even though we have the Air Act and the standards for air quality, there is no legal obligation on state governments / local municipal corporations to meet ambient air quality standards. This renders Air quality planning framework ineffective in India because ambient air quality standards are not legally enforceable. MoEF must ensure that NAAQS be given a legally enforceable status to empower the regulatory agencies and strengthen the framework.
9. While we are planning monitoring and control activities for abatement of air pollution in biggest cities, smaller cities are sooner than later going to grapple with the same critical pollution levels. Thus there is a greater need for MoEF to decentralize the responsibility down to the municipal / local and state levels.
10. Further, to achieve these targets all central programmes need to be re-organised under a National Air Quality Plan, the city based programmes under Clean Air Action Plan and programmes for industrial areas as Air Pollution Control and Prevention in Industrial Areas programmes.
5.4.1.2 Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES)
The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is mandated to provide the nation with best possible services in forecasting the monsoons and other weather/climate parameters, ocean state, earthquakes, tsunamis and other phenomena related to earth systems through well integrated programmes.
5.4.1.2.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
The institutions under the Ministry dealing with Air Quality Management are as follows:
1. IMD (Indian Meteorological Department): It provides meteorological data, conducts and promotes research in meteorology and allied disciples. IMD provides assistance to the NAMP (National Air Quality Management Programme).
2. IITM (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology), Pune: It is a premiere autonomous research Institute to generate scientific knowledge in the field of meteorology and atmospheric sciences that have potential application in various fields. It functions as a national centre for basic and applied research in monsoon meteorology. IITM Pune has a separate research programme on Air Pollution, Transport Modeling and Middle Atmospheric Climate to facilitate more research in this domain.
IITM Pune recently developed SAFAR (System of Air Quality Forecasting and Research), which is the first ever air quality forecasting system in India. SAFAR was first tested during the Commonwealth Games 2010 in New Delhi and it provides location specific information on Air Quality in near real time and its forecast 24 hours in advance. SAFAR is coupled with the weather forecasting system designed by IMD, New Delhi. The ultimate objective of developing SAFAR is to increase the awareness among general public regarding the air quality in their city well in advance so that appropriate mitigation action and systematic measures can be taken up for the betterment of air quality and related health issues.
5.4.1.2.2 Review of Ministry’s Work.
MoES is promoting scientific research in the country in the field of air quality monitoring, air pollution source apportionment studies, air quality modeling studies and other emission characterisation studies related to various pollutants.
SAFAR is a commendable initiative taken by IITM Pune, under the aegis of the MoES, to help India surge ahead in the field of air quality monitoring and forecasting research. This initiative will aid the air quality management framework in the country in a big way and is another step towards building a comprehensive air quality monitoring network throughout the country. This monitoring network when replicated to various parts of the country will guide the policy makers to formulate a suitable action plan for improving the air quality of the country.
MoES must work in collaboration with MoEF and MoST to build the capacity of IITM Pune to undertake SAFAR implementation to a pan-India level in the next 5-10 years.
5.4.1.3 Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST)
Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST) promotes research and development studies in the domain of air quality management through the Department of Science and Technology. In this endeavour, it supports various projects at scientific research institutions like CSIR, CRRI, NEERI, IITM Pune, etc.
5.4.1.3.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
The Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR) is a premier multidisciplinary R&D organization in India which is an autonomous body of the Department of Scientific & Industrial Research under the aegis of the Ministry of Science & Technology, Government of India. It provides scientific, industrial research and development that maximises the economic, environmental and societal benefits for the people of India.
CRRI (Central Road Research Institute) is one of the constituent units of the CSIR. It is a premier national research organization for highways traffic and transport planning and all other allied aspects. It has a separate ‘Transport Planning and Environment Division’ which deals with research and development activities related to ‘Monitoring, Measurement, Modeling and Evaluation of Air Pollution due to Road & Road Transport’. It also provides consultancy on ‘Air Pollution & Exhaust Emission Monitoring and Dispersion Modeling’ and has conducted a study on ‘Urban Road Traffic and Air Pollution in Major Metropolitan Cities of India (URTRAP)’ in the year 2002.
NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute) is another constituent unit of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). NEERI is a prominent stakeholder in the domain of air quality management in India and performs the following key activities as a part of its mandate:
1. Research and developmental studies in environmental science and engineering, environment policy, environment monitoring, etc.
2. Advisory services to the central government, state government, judiciary and industries in solving the problems of environmental pollution by science and technology intervention.
NEERI’S focus areas in the domain of air quality management are as follows:
1. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) – VOCs, Monitoring, Health Impacts, Public Awareness and Training.
2. Ambient Air Quality (AAQ) – Urban AQ data-bank, inventorization, source apportionment analysis, analytical techniques, cost effective control, conservation of monuments.
3. Health – Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) analysis for delineation of genetic disturbances due to exposures of air pollutants.
National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) monitors ambient air quality in 30 stations covering 10 major cities as a part of CPCB’s ambitious nationwide NAMP (National Air Quality Monitoring Programme)[16]. In the past, NEERI has carried out a training workshop on air pollution management and has carried out ‘Source Apportionment’ studies for various cities.
5.4.1.3.2 Review of Ministry’s Work.
MoST promotes research in the all encompassing discipline of environmental sciences. It promotes research which facilitates greater understanding about ambient air quality and its implications on the environment, human beings, crops, animals, etc. It provides both institutional grants for capacity building and individual project funding for research that could enhance India’s knowledge capital in this field. The Department of Science and Technology bears the onus of steering India in the direction of research and innovation in the field of air quality management.
5.4.1.4 Ministry of Shipping, Road, Transport and Highways (MoSRTH)
The Ministry is an apex organisation under the Central Government, entrusted with the task of formulating and administering, in consultation with other Central Ministries/Departments, State Governments/UT Administrations, organisations and individuals, policies for Road Transport, National Highways and Transport Research with a view to increasing the mobility and efficiency of the road transport system in the country.
5.4.1.4.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
It is the nodal agency for formulation and implementation of various provisions of the Motor Vehicle Act 1988 and CMVR (Central Motor Vehicle Rules) 1989 and. The Standing Committee on Implementation of Emission Legislation (SCOE) deliberates the following issues related to implementation of emission regulation:
1. Discusses future emission norms.
2. Recommends norms for in-use vehicles to MoSRTH.
3. Finalise the test procedures and implementation strategy for emission norms.
4. Advises MoSRTH on any issue relating to implementation of emission regulations.
Apart from MoSRTH, Ministries like MoEF, MoPNG and Ministry of Non-conventional Energy Sources are also involved in formulation of regulations relating to Emissions, Fuels and Alternative Fuel vehicles.
MoSRTH also organises workshop-cum-training programmes every year, two each at ARAI (Pune), and IIP (Dehradun), for officers of the State Transport Department to provide them with training regarding checking of vehicular pollution more scientifically and effectively. These are all efforts of the Ministry towards reducing air pollution.
5.4.1.4.2 Review of the Ministry’s Work.
Report of working group on road transport for the twelfth year plan (2012-17) suggests the following measures on improving fuel efficiency of vehicles which will essentially reduce vehicular emissions[17]:
1. Label individual vehicles on a kilometre per litre (kmpl) basis to enable consumers to make a rational choice. This could be accompanied by either a star rating or a mention of the worst and best fuel efficiencies in that vehicle class.
2. Begin with labelling that is based on a continuous function of weight and fuel efficiency.
3. Define a minimum efficiency standard for the country’s vehicle fleet.
The report also suggests incentivising commercial vehicle owners to modernize their fleet which is older than 15 years. This initiative will ensure that the new fleet will be more fuel efficient and the emissions from it will also be less from the current levels.
Formulating tighter vehicle emission norms is the next step that the Ministry can take towards the mission to achieve the National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
5.4.1.5 Ministry of Health and Family Welfare ( MoH&FW)
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the Indian government ministry charged with health policy in India.
5.4.1.5.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
The Department of Health Research in the Ministry undertakes various research activities on studying the impact of air pollution on human health. The department identifies both ‘Indoor Air Pollution’ and ‘Outdoor Air Pollution’ harmful to the public health.
The ICMR (Indian Council for Medical Research) is the apex body in India for the formulation, coordination and promotion of biomedical research, is one of the oldest medical research bodies in the world. The ICMR is funded by the Government of India through the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. The ICMR has a division on non-communicable diseases which looks into air pollution impact on human health.
ICMR has set up a Center for Advanced Research in Environmental Health at Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai which undertakes research in this field to study the impacts of both indoor and outdoor air pollution on children and adults. The university is also the World Health Organization Collaborating Center for Research and Training in Occupational Health.
The National Institute of Occupational Health (NIOH) has been actively engaged in occupational and environmental research for over 40 years. Located in Ahmadabad, Gujarat in western India, NIOH is under the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare. NIOH is a WHO Collaborative Center on Occupational and Environmental Health, and it collaborates in research with international agencies including WHO, ILO, CDC, NIOSH and US EPA. NIOH is a regional centre/institute of the ICMR.
NIOH has a separate ‘Air Pollution Division’ through which they have undertaken research work on health related impacts of air pollution. A glimpse of their research work in this field is as follows:
1. Health risk assessment for rural and urban population due to ambient/indoor air pollution.
2. Comparative epidemiological studies on effects of air pollutants.
3. Air pollution due to vehicular traffic in designated cities / towns of the Gujarat state and evaluation of health status of school children studying nearby traffic junction in cities identified by the Hon’ble High Court.
5.4.1.5.2 Review of Ministry’s Work.
The Ministry must proactively engage in developing the research capabilities of its constituent institutions in carrying out health risk assessments on air pollution (indoor and outdoor). A comprehensive portfolio of the research work on health related impacts of air pollution must be developed in a planned manner. The research work is quintessential in not only determining the immediate health impacts but also to understand the future implications of constant exposure to polluted air. The Ministry must also ensure that all the research work is communicated through a comprehensive outreach programme to all the stakeholders of the system so that they can collectively engage in formulating effective strategies for the future.
5.4.1.6 Ministry of Power (MoP)
The Ministry is concerned with perspective planning, policy formulation, processing of projects for investment decision, monitoring of the implementation of power projects, training and manpower development and the administration and enactment of legislation in regard to thermal, hydro power generation, transmission and distribution.
5.4.1.6.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
The Ministry of Power is responsible for the Administration of the Electricity Act, 2003, the Energy Conservation Act , 2001 and to undertake such amendments to these Acts, as may be necessary from time to time, in conformity with the Government’s policy objectives.
Seized of the current and emerging pressure, both local and global, on the front of environment management for the electricity sector, the Union Ministry of Power has taken a number of new initiatives in addition to strengthening the existing ones. Special Purpose Vehicle has been set up to effect compensatory a forestation to facilitate expeditious clearance from Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) for new power projects.
The Ministry has released the NTPC[18] Environment Management Report which has numerous measures on curbing air pollution to set an example in the field of power generation[19]. The Ministry has also released an ‘Environmental Delegation Order’ for abatement of pollution in Thermal Power Plants to further its environment commitments and obligations[20]
5.4.1.6.2 Review of Ministry’s Work.
The Ministry recognises that pollution from power generation through the use of conventional fuel in thermal power plants is one of the key areas of concern for the country. It aims to showcase NTPC’s environment management efforts as an illustration of the kind of work power generating companies can do to reduce the harm to the environment. The Ministry must ensure that the new thermal power plants to be set up in the country must incorporate serious air pollution mitigation efforts into their environmental management plans. This must be mandated as typically the life of a thermal plant is 30-35 years; hence the damage to the environment could be multi-fold if the problem is not nipped in the bud. The Ministry can enhance the supply of clean power generation in the country by mandating conventional power generators to install a certain percentage of their power generating capacity through renewable energy. This obligation when formulated in consultation with MNRE, CERC and other stakeholders, will also enable the utilities to achieve their targets under the RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligation)[21], a mandate which derives its essence from The Electricity Act, 2003. This mandate will ensure greater generation of clean power in the country, thereby reducing the air pollution from coal power generation.
5.4.1.7 Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG)
The Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas is entrusted with the responsibility of exploration and production of oil and natural gas, their refining, distribution and marketing, import, export, and conservation of petroleum products and Liquefied Natural Gas.
5.4.1.7.1 Initiatives and projects taken by the ministry for Air Quality Management.
The Ministry has launched a 10 point programme aimed at reducing air pollution for protection of Taj by introducing cleaner fuels.[22] The Ministry has also embarked on an ambitious fuel conservation drive, lead & marketed by the PCRA (Petroleum Conservation Research Association). PCRA is the research arm of MoPNG which formulate strategies and promote measures for accelerating conservation of petroleum products, creates awareness among masses about the importance, benefits and methods of conserving petroleum products, promotes R&D efforts aimed at petroleum conservation & environment protection, supports efforts for adoption and dissemination of fuel efficient technologies and substitution of petroleum products with alternate fuels/renewable energy and functions as a Think Tank to the Govt. of India for proposing policies and strategies on petroleum conservation and environment protection aimed at reducing excessive dependence on oil.
In the past, PCRA has also developed community outreach programmes on the ill effects of air pollution, caused by the incomplete combustion of fuel.
5.4.1.7.2 Review of Ministry’s Work.
The ministry is an active participant in efforts to reduce vehicular emissions from incomplete combustion and inappropriate usage of fuel. The ministry is also a participant of various inter-ministerial committees, which form policy framework for the air quality management in the country. PCRA seems to be spearheading the efforts of the Ministry by its multi-pronged approach of promoting research, performing training, policy advocacy, conducting energy audit activities and conducting outreach.
5.4.2 Ministries involved indirectly in the Air Quality Management framework.
5.4.2.1 Review of other Ministries working towards air pollution abatement.
Listed below are a set of other ministries of the government of India, working towards the issue of air quality management indirectly. A brief review of their initiatives in this field is provided below:
1. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE): The Ministry emphasises on development of non-conventional sources of energy to complement the prevalent energy mix, thereby leading India towards ‘Energy Security’. MNRE is actively working towards addressing problems related to Indoor Air pollution and Black Carbon. MNRE’s National Biofuel Policy aims to meet 20% of India’s diesel demand with fuel derived from plants, which signifies adequate policy intent. National Biomass Cookstoves Initiative of MNRE facilitates development and deployment of clean and efficient cook stoves to reduce indoor air pollution as well as abate black carbon which is another step towards clean air.
2. Ministry of Coal (MoC): The Union Minister of Coal recently indicated that industries now run the risk of even having their coal linkage cancelled if the transporters engaged by them are found flouting norms that lead to pollution due to spillage of coal particles that rise in the air.[23] The Ministry has introduced the coal cess of Rs 50 per tonne on imported or domestically produced coal, to be deposited in the NCEF ( National Clean Energy Fund ), which aims to fund projects on clean energy which will lead to the ultimate goal of abatement of air pollution.
3. Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MoCA): The Ministry had mandated Corporate Social Responsibility activities for PSUs (Public Sector Undertaking) and given voluntary guidelines to corporate entities in 2009. These activities can eventually lead to air pollution control.
4. Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD): National Urban Transport Policy[24] in one of its objectives, states its intent to reduce pollution, while also stating its priority to increase the use of public transport and using cleaner technologies. It also aims to incentivise more efficient-small vehicles. The Union Urban Development Ministry will fund 80 per cent of the cost of preparing master plan/detailed project report for intelligent transport system (ITS) in important cities across the country which will eventually lead to ambient air[25].
5. Ministry of Heavy Industries & Public Industries (MoHI&PI): Pollution Control Research Institute (PCRI) has been set up by Department of Heavy Industry with Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) as the lead agency under United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The objective of PCRI project is to evolve industrial pollution control technologies with respect to air, water houses and solid wastes to avoid unintended side effects of economic growth. The Institute provides services industries and thermal power stations on a regular basis.[26]
6. Ministry of Commerce & Industry (MoCI): The Ministry recognises the importance of environmental clearances in its ‘Industrial Policy’. However, there is no explicit mention of any air pollution abatement initiatives.
5.5 Stakeholder – Agências governamentais.
Various government agencies are involved in the institutional framework of air quality management in the country. The most important government agencies impacting the system are listed below:
5.5.1 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
CPCB was constituted on 22nd September 1974. The original name of CPCB was Central Board for the Prevention and Control of Pollution. The name was subsequently changed to the CPCB on 01.04.1988 through Water (Prevention & Control) Amendment Act, 1988 to promote cleanliness of streams, wells etc. in different areas of the States by prevention, control and abatement of water pollution, and to improve the quality of air in the country. This was done with a view that the CPCB had to implement both Water and Air Act and functions under both the Act were to be executed by the one agency and, therefore, the name was changed to Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).The Environment (Protection) Act (EPA) was passed in 1986 as an umbrella Act to close the gaps in the Water and Air Act, and subsequently, more functions were given to CPCB under this Act.[27]
5.5.1.2 Function of Central Pollution Control Board.
1. Advise the Central Government on any other matter concerning prevention and control of pollution and improvement of the quality of air;
2. Plan and cause to be executed a nationwide program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
3. Coordinate the activities of states and resolve disputes among them;
4. Provide technical assistance and guidance to State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs), carry out and sponsor investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
5. Plan and organize the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programs for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
6. Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and measures devised for the effective prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention control or abatement of air pollution;
7. Lay down the standards for the quality of air;
8. Collect and disseminate information and matters relating to air pollution; e.
9. Perform such other functions as may be prescribed.
5.5.1.3 Roles and Responsibilities of CPCB.
Presently CPCB is playing multi-faced role in the sphere of pollution abatement and control. The different roles are described in Table 1.
Table 1: Role and Responsibility of CPCB.
5.5.1.4 Organisation structure and division of work in CPCB[28]
Figure 3: Organisation Structure of CPCB.
5.5.1.5 Initiatives and projects taken by the CPCB for Air Quality Management.
Listed below are a few of the important initiatives on air quality management undertaken by CPCB:
1. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
2. National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
1. Industry Emission Standards : CPCB lays down industry specific emission standards and also general standards for discharge of environmental pollutants as stated in The Environment Protection (Rules) 1986[29]
2. Vehicular Exhaust Emission Standards: CPCB specifies vehicular exhaust emission standards for passenger cars, heavy diesel vehicles and for 2/3 wheelers. These norms are specified for Bharat Stage II, III and IV.
3. Fuel Quality Standards: CPCB also specifies auto fuel quality standards for diesel and gasoline on its website.
4. ‘Zoning Atlas for better environmental planning’: This programme has been introduced by CPCB for better siting of industries zones while still protecting the environment. It presents the pollution receiving potential of various sites/zones in various districts and the possible alternate sites for industries through easy-to-read maps.
5. Ecomark: CPCB has also initiated a scheme on eco-labelling environmental friendly products to increase consumer awareness. The Government of India launched the eco-labelling scheme known as `Ecomark’ in 1991 for easy identification of environment-friendly products.
6. CEPI scoring of polluted clusters: CPCB in association with Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi carried out an environmental assessment of industrial clusters across the India. Based on this, comprehensive environmental pollution index (CEPI) was calculated to identify polluted industrial clusters in the country. This was done to priorities planning needs to improve quality of environment in these industrial clusters.
7. City Action Plans: These action Plans are being made for 16 non-attainment cities[30] which haven’t been able to attain the Ambient Air Quality Standards.
8. Action Plans for CPAs (Critically Polluted Areas): CPCB has initiated action plans for improvement of environment in 43 critically polluted areas/clusters and is monitoring its implementation.
9. Continuous Ambient Air Quality Management: CPCB has embarked on the ambitious initiative of continuous air quality monitoring.[31] According to report of sub-group on environment for 12 th plan, 46 continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations (CAAQMS) have also been installed across 28 cities and towns. Few public sector companies like NTPC, Coal India, SAIL, petroleum refineries, ONGC, etc. have also installed CAAQMS in their units.
5.5.1.5.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
In India ambient air quality standards were first adopted on 11 November 1982 in exercise of its jurisdiction under Section 16 (2) (h) of the Air (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. The air quality standards were then revised (Annexure 1 by CPCB Delhi) on 11 April 1994. CPCB consulted experts in the field of air quality and health effects of air pollution to formulate the air quality standards. Subsequent to the deliberations of experts and the consensus reached, CPCB has formulated the ambient air quality standards for most commonly found pollutants. Different standards were laid down for industrial, residential, and sensitive areas to protect human health and natural resources from the effects of air pollution. Refer Annexure I and II for NAAQS (1994) and NAAQS (2009) respectively.
5.5.1.5.1.2 Interventions for achieving NAAQS.
For attainment of the NAAQS, interventions were taken at central, state and city level. While centrally, vehicular emissions and fuel quality norms have been raised to BS-IV in 13 cities and BS-III in rest of India; introduction of cleaner fuels, improvement in public transport (both MRTS and bus based), shift towards gas based power generation have been some actions taken at State level. Some local measures taken at the city level include re-location of industries; plying restrictions for polluting vehicles, traffic management, etc. However, rise in activity levels including growth in population, number of vehicles and industrial production have negated the effects of interventions.
5.5.1.5.2 National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP)
Central Pollution Control Board initiated National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) programme in the year 1984 with 7 stations at Agra and Anpara. CPCB coordinates the air quality monitoring framework through this nation-wide programme, which was later renamed as National Air Quality Monitoring Programme(NAMP).
Monitoring Network: According to CPCB, NAMP which was originally called National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring (NAAQM) comprises of a network of 342 pollution monitoring stations covering 127 cities/towns in 26 States and 4 Union Territories of the country.[32] However, new stations are constantly being added continuously. In a recent report of the planning commission[33], the network is said to have been reached to 665 monitoring stations. Figure 1.3 shows the Air Quality Monitoring Mechanism of India.
Pollutants Monitored: The air pollutants monitored on a regular basis are four namely, Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter or Particulate Matter of less than 10μ size (PM10 or RSPM). The air quality monitoring technology also integrates meteorological parameters such as wind speed, wind direction, relative humidity and temperature.
Objectives of NAMP: The objectives of NAMP as envisaged by the CPCB are as follows:
1. To determine status and trends of ambient air quality ascertain whether the prescribed ambient air quality standards are violated.
2. To identify cities which are unable to attain the standards prescribed.
3. To obtain the knowledge and understanding necessary for developing preventive and corrective measures and.
4. To understand the natural cleansing process undergoing in the environment through pollution dilution, dispersion, wind-based movement, dry deposition, precipitation and chemical transformation of pollutants generated.
Frequency of monitoring.
Air pollutants are monitored for a period of twenty four hours, two times a week. Gaseous pollutants are sampled at 4-hour intervals and particulate matter at 8-hour intervals. In all, a total of one hundred and four (104) observations are recorded in a year for every sampling station.
Institutions assisting in NAMP [34]
CPCB, SPCBs, PCCs, NEERI, Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering (Nagpur), University of Pune, KTHM College (Nasik), Walchand Institute of Technology (Solapur), Thane Municipal Corporation (Thane)
5.5.1.5.2.2 Review of NAMP.
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) [Refer Annexure II], developed by the CPCB, lay standards for 12 air pollutants – SO 2 , NO 2 , PM 10 , PM 2.5 , Lead, Ammonia, Arsenic, Nickel, Ozone, Benzene, Benzo(a)pyrene (BAP) & Carbon Monoxide. These standards are applicable for two types of areas namely ‘Industrial, Residential, Rural and other areas’ and ‘Ecologically Sensitive Area (notified by Central Government).
Under National Air Quality Monitoring Programme (NAMP), four air pollutants viz ., Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of Nitrogen as NO2, Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) and Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) have been identified for regular monitoring at all the locations. In some stations additional parameters like respirable lead, toxic metals, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and PAHs are also being studied. The monitoring frequency is 104 observations in a year (twice weekly) with gases being sampled 4 hourly and particulate matter (PM) 8 hourly. Based on the studies, it has been observed that 72 cities do not meet the standards[35]. CPCB is incurring Rs. 3.56 Cr annually on this scheme[36].
Also, there are a number of other hazardous pollutants like Volatile Organic Compound (VOC), Benzene Toluene Xylene (BTX), Poly Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), etc, present in the ambient atmosphere, which are neither monitored nor any standards have been prescribed for them.
Under the NAMP, Central Pollution Control Board is regularly monitoring criteria pollutants such as PM10, SO2 and NOx at 411 monitoring stations across 167 cities in the country.
Monitoring has also been carried out for other pollutants like PM2.5, Ammonia, Ozone, Carbon monoxide, Hydrocarbons (Benzene Toluene and Xylene), Poly-aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at selected locations in the country. Analysis of long term trends (1995-2009) of air pollutants show that while SO2 has been under control, NOx has exceeded in 11-23% cities during last 15 years.
RSPM has consistently remained a major concern for the country as 82-100% cities exceeded the standards in last 10 years (1999-2009). Current, air quality data for the year 2010 reveals that the annual average concentration of SO2 is within the limit (50 μg/m3), while levels of NO2 have exceeded the limit (40 μg/m3) in Asansol, Dhanbad, Delhi, Jamshedpur, Kolkata, Meerut and Mumbai. The annual average standard of PM10 (annual average – 60 μg/m3) was exceeded in most of the cities, except Chennai, Kochi and Madurai during 2010.
Rise in vehicular fleet has caused an increase in the NOx concentrations at most of the urban centres, which makes this an emerging pollutant of concern for future. It is interesting to note that the ‘104 measurements’ as specified as the ideal frequency of measurement of the observations, is not met at any monitoring station due to various reasons. This number should be realistically modified.
Air quality network is presently insufficient not only in terms of number of stations but also in the parameters needs to be monitored. Only 3 criteria pollutants are regularly monitored at all the stations as against 12 specified in the revised NAAQS. In spite of 34 years of its existence, CPCB has not been able to complete the inventorization of air polluting sources.
Parameter Wise Findings under NAMP [37]
As per CPCB, SO 2 levels are within the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards in residential areas of all the cities. A decreasing trend has been observed in SO 2 levels in cities like Delhi, Lucknow etc. Decreasing trend may be due to various interventions that have taken place in recent years such as reduction of sulphur in diesel, use of cleaner fuel such as CNG in Delhi. Other measures include implementation of Bharat Stage-III emission norms for new vehicles and commensurate fuel quality. Also there has been a change in domestic fuel used from coal to LPG which may have contributed to reduction in ambient levels of SO 2 .
As per CPCB, NO 2 levels are within the prescribed National Ambient Air Quality Standards in residential areas of most of the cities. The reasons for low levels of NO 2 may be various measures taken such as banning of old vehicles, better traffic management etc. Fluctuating trends have been observed in NO 2 levels. Various measures such as implementation of Bharat Stage-III norms etc have been taken to mitigate ambient NO 2 levels but at the same time number of vehicles have increased exponentially.
As per CPCB, RSPM levels exceed prescribed NAAQS in residential areas of many cities. Fluctuating trends have been observed in RSPM levels. Various measures such as implementation of Bharat Stage-III norms etc have been taken to mitigate ambient RSPM levels but at the same time number of vehicles have increased exponentially. The reason for high particulate matter levels may be vehicles, engine gensets, small scale industries, biomass incineration, re-suspension of traffic dust, commercial and domestic use of fuels, etc.
High levels of CO might be attributed to increase in vehicular population especially passenger cars in Delhi. Despite an increase in number of vehicles, CO levels have reduced during last few years. The decrease may be attributed to measures such as conversion of three wheelers of CNG in Delhi.
5.5.1.6 Review of CPCB Functioning.
Provided below is a comprehensive critique of the functioning of CPCB and potential areas of improvement.
1. CPCB Member Composition:
Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests (Rajya Sabha Committee) in its 192nd report on functioning of central pollution control board stated that the composition of CPCB was dominated by Government representatives and constituted by central government. It expressed its displeasure with this composition and re-iterated its discomfort over the fact that no qualifications or criteria had been fixed for Members of such an important technical and scientific body. The report states “The eligibility criteria for Chairman prescribing a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of matters relating to environmental protection or a person having knowledge and experience in administering institution dealing with the matters aforesaid are too general and vague as to accommodate anyone who is even distantly related with environment.” CPCB must therefore review its internal organisational structure and Human Resource policies to institutionalise the key competency requirement of the personnel as an important criterion for selection of the candidate for the position.
2. Shortage of Technical Staff:
CPCB suffers an acute shortage of technical staff in CPCB. Though the Board has sophisticated equipments to monitor various types of pollution they do not have sufficient technical manpower to handle it. Technical Staff comprised only 48 percent of total staff in 2004-05. Moreover, out of its 236 technical staff only half are in the officer grade. The shortage of technical manpower is far more acute in various state pollution control boards and leads to mismanagement of resources leading to failure of the institutional machinery.
Training of staff is another area of concern for CPCB, given that controlling pollution is one of the most important functions of CPCB which requires sufficient scientific and technical expertise. Personnel at CPCB must be imparted multi disciplinary training especially in the domain of air quality monitoring which requires special expertise.
4. Remunerations of Staff:
The Parliamentary Standing Committee[38] in its report stated that the remunerations for officers and staff of CPCB are not lucrative enough to attract talented people and contain the attrition rates. The report also states that experienced people from CPCB are hired by corporate sector by offering attractive remuneration and in the process valuable experience is lost. This is one of the most daunting human resource tasks for CPCB. CPCB must incentivize and reward achievers within the organisation. The employee and staff must grow with the organisation for the organisation to grow successfully.
5. Organisation Structure:
CPCB and SPCBs are two independent yet parallel regulatory agencies entrusted with the powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and designated with the task of monitoring and controlling of air pollution in the country. CPCB restricts itself primarily to the role of advising and coordination, whereas the important task of prevention and control of air pollution & ensuring compliance through the tools of monitoring and vigilance rests with SPCBs, all of which are operating at their own will and pace. CPCB’s role in compliance and enforcement has been mostly indirect through SPCBs. This dichotomy of the work description has limited CPCB’s role to an advisory function rather than a regulatory agency. The division of work must be re-distributed to empower both CPCB and SPCBs.
6. Industrial Clearance licences:
The Parliamentary Standing Committee 28 in its report confirms that environment clearances for mining, setting up of industries, etc. are given by the central or state government concerned and that CPCB or SPCBs do not have any say in these matters. The report affirms that they are not even consulted or informed and that the Boards come in the picture only after the clearance has been given to set up industry with their role limited to giving a pollution control standard for effluent discharge, emission, etc. Hence, the report states that both CPCB and SPCBs do not have any decisive say to prevail upon the industries to make them follow these standards. This is a grave concern for any regulatory agency assigned with a daunting task of controlling industrial pollution. The pollution control boards both at state and central level must be empowered as autonomous regulatory agencies with punitive powers.
7. Ambient Air Quality Network:
The Parliamentary committee’s report 28 has made recommendations for the ambient air quality monitoring network in country should be strengthened and expanded from the current 332 stations to at least 1000 stations. The report suggested expanding the network to 15 cities per year so as to cover the 76 non-compliant cities over a period of five years. The network of city monitoring stations should broadcast a daily alert on air pollution levels. The air pollution health index should be used to alert people of the health risks in their cities. The report suggests that this should be done within a time-bound manner keeping in mind the growing environmental concerns. To this effect, there has been an addition of 46 new ambient air quality monitoring stations during the 11th Plan, taking the total network air quality monitoring stations to 665[39].
5.5.1.7 Suggested Measures to Empower CPCB.
The present framework of CPCB and SPCBs working as independent and autonomous entity in their own capacity with no central authority to command and control, has led to a weak institutional mechanism. The role of ensuring compliance by way of inspection, vigilance and sampling falls under the domain of SPCBs with CPCB acting merely as a guiding and coordinating body. The end result is that SPCBs are masters in their own rights and they do whatever they desire.
So far the CPCB is only coordinating and monitoring the environmental quality. Its role should be expanded to include compliance and enforcement. It is also extremely important that CPCB be in a commanding position and that it adopts a participatory approach in the enforcement responsibility of SPCBs.
It is imperative that CPCB be restructured as an autonomous statutory authority with the mandate not only to develop regulations and fix up standards but also to ensure enforcement and compliance. The entity must be empowered to function independently of the government both financially and operationally. CPCB should develop capacity as an independent regulatory agency. It must undertake advisory roles in suggesting alternatives for meeting those standards in coordination with other Scientific and Technical Departments in independent capacity.
The principle of polluters pay should also be enforced. A mechanism to empower CPCB should be developed, to allow CPCB to impose financial fines on polluting industries/people. Any industry is affected most when it is implicated financially. Therefore, to ensure pollution compliance to the standards across sectors, it will be ideal to impose administrative fines. It is also seen that the penalties imposed when any pollution related violation is observed is a trifle amount for large polluting industries and so it doesn’t fulfil its purpose of a negative reinforcement for such corporations. Therefore, the administered fines must be adjusted to the financial strength of the organisation to ensure compliance at all cost. These fines must be utilised to build capacity of these regulatory institutions and their facilities.
4. Statutory and Legal Support.
The Parliamentary committee 28 made an important recommendation in its report on the evaluation of CPCB. It states “Central Pollution Control Board needs to be given adequate statutory and legal support to make it effective and functional and for this purpose its constitution under Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 needs to be urgently reviewed. The Committee recommends that environment protection should be included as an item in the seventh schedule to the constitution in the concurrent list and CPCB be brought under its ambit with all necessary powers and functions to meet the challenges that pollution and its after effects pose before us without disturbing the federal character of our constitution. This new body should be given functional as well as financial autonomy so that it can discharge its duties without fear or favour.” This is an important recommendation from the perspective of making CPCB, an independent regulatory agency to aid its effectiveness and functioning.
5. Information & Operational Transparency.
The information collected by CPCB must be made public in due time which is not the case right now. This should be complemented with complete transparency in its functioning. Along with the scientific data, legal data regarding laws suits, cases of non compliance should also be made available in public domain through its official website so as to ensure operational transparency.
6. Representation in State Pollution Control Board.
CPCB should have a stake in the governance of all SPCBs for strengthening the communication channels between the two primary regulatory and enforcement agencies. It must also ensure adequate representation in all the state pollution control bodies so as to ensure proper enforcement of directives and implementation of standards issued by CPCB.
7. Performance Review of CPCB.
Presently there is no inbuilt performance review system of CPCB at regular interval by MoEF. The review should include both performance budgeting and perspective planning of CPCB. This exercise should be done at annual level between the CPCB and MoEF. It will facilitate coordination between the two agencies and the problem (if any) arises at any level can be nipped in the bud.
8. Financial Independence.
Besides, the grant from Government of India, CPCB should secure release of 20% of cess collected by the state boards and which is retained in consolidate fund of Government of India at Ministry of Finance. CPCB should also generate its own fund by providing technical services in the form of sample testing, trainings and providing technologies to various stakeholders. CPCB has to ensure that while utilizing its scientific experts to provide consultancy for fund generation, its core mandate and functions should not be sacrificed in terms of quality and quantity. For this purpose CPCB should have a clear policy of developing its own corpus over the years and should strictly adhere to it.[40]
The IIM (Indian Institute of Management) Lucknow report on the evaluation of CPCB (2010) has set certain targets for the CPCB under its KOGMA (Key objectives, Goals, Measures, Targets, Activities) scheme for better functioning of CPCB. These targets would require 550 additional posts, which will cost CPCB an additional Rs. 18 crores per annum.
Availability of financial resources should be ensured if CPCB has to perform its mandates efficiently. Presently CPCB is entirely dependent on Government for funds. Accordingly, there must be quantum jump in financial support by Government to CPCB. Government should provide funds for strengthening the labs of CPCB and its zonal offices, infrastructure expansion at CPCB head office and Shillong zonal office, and computerization and Environmental Data Base Management. It has been estimated that a one-time grant of Rs. 80.00 crores (excluding the cost of additional technical manpower of Rs. 18 crores) would be required to strengthen the CPCB on all the above counts.
9. More communication with other ministries.
There is a need for closer coordination with other Ministries and organizations which are directly or indirectly related to pollution control. CPCB has to create its own space in the entire domain of pollution control without it being excessively dependent on MoEF directions.
10. Data repository & Information Technology implementation.
CPCB should have strong database related to its activities and the same should be put in the public domain through CPCB Envis[41]. CPCB does not update its achievements frequently on the public domain. In the digital age of technology, CPCB should facilitate computerization of all processes of the pollution control board to achieve efficiency in all its internal processes.
5.5.2 State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
In India, 28 states have SPCBs (State Pollution Control Boards) and 7 Union Territories have PCCs (Pollution control Committees) respectively.
World Bank’s Industrial Pollution Prevention Project (IPP) & Environmental Management Capacity Building Technical Assistance Project (EMCBTA) which was signed in 1997 facilitates strengthening of 22 pollution control boards/PCCs. The list of these states is as follows:
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, New Delhi, Goa, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Orissa, Pondicherry, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
5.5.2.1 Functions of State Pollution Control Boards.
1. To plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to secure the execution thereof;
2. To advise the State government on any matter concerning prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
3. To collaborate with CPCB in organizing training of persons, engaged or to be engaged in a program relating to prevention control or abatement of air pollution and to organize mass-education programs relating thereto;
4. To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing process and to give, by order, such direction to such persons as may considered necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
5. To inspect air pollution control areas at such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the quality of air therein, and take steps for prevention control or abatement of air pollution in such areas;
6. To lay down, in consultation with CPCB and having regard to the standards for the quality of air it lays down, standards for emissions of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft;
7. To advise the State government with respect to the suitability of any premises from time to time, entrusted to it by CPCB or the State government to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of the Act.
State government in consultation with SPCBs have powers to designate particular areas as “air pollution control areas”. State governments, in consultation with SPCBs, may impose certain conditions on such areas, by making a notification in the official gazette, to prohibit the use of any fuel or appliance other than approved ones or the burning of any material (other than fuel) such as garbage and other waste products which may cause or is likely to cause air pollution. It is further provided under Section 21 of the Air Act that a person has to get the previous consent of a SPCB for establishing or operating any industrial plants in the air pollution control areas. Similarly, Section 22 prohibits a person from operating any industrial plant in any air pollution control area to discharge or cause or permit to be discharged the emission of air pollutants in excess of the standards laid down by the SPCB concerned.
5.5.2.2 Review of SPCBs.
According to the report of the sub-group on environment for the 12 th Plan, at present only 3 SPCBs out of 35 get financial support from their respective States. Other SPCBs which are not financially supported by their State Governments with little or no resources of their own, find it difficult to monitor the environmental compliance. These States and the ones which do not get assistance under national, multilateral or bilateral programmes need to be strengthened to develop their capabilities. In addition, there are States which are not industrially developed but have large number of small-scale industrial units which have adverse impact on human health and environment. The ecology is also more vulnerable to assimilation of pollution in these regions. These SPCBs require additional financial support from the central government to build their own capacity.
5.5.3 Environment Pollution (Prevention Control) Authority for the National Capital Region (EPCA)
EPCA for National Capital Region was constituted under sub-section (3) of Section 3 of the.
Environment Protection Act, 1986 on 29 th January, 1998 vide S. O. No. 93(E) dated January 29, 1998 under the Chairmanship of Sh. Bhure Lal. The tenure of the EPCA was extended from time to time, and at present extended upto 28 th January, 2013. The issues considered by the Authority include environment related matters, covering vehicular pollution control, sewage treatment and assessment of operations and handing over of Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs) in NCR (National Capital Region).
To the concerned societies, monitoring of action plans for improvement of air quality in seven metro cities etc. and in addition, the matters referred to it by Hon’ble Supreme Court in its various Judgments. EPCA is reporting the compliance status and special tasks assigned to it to the Hon’ble Supreme Court from time to time.
5.5.3.1 Terms of Reference of EPCA.
EPCA shall exercise the following powers and perform functions for protecting and improving the quality of environment and prevention and control of environmental pollution:
1. Exercise the powers under Section 5 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 for issuing directions in respect of complaints pertaining to violation of environmental standards, industrial location, pollution prevention and hazardous waste handling;
2. Take all necessary steps to ensure compliance of specified emission standards by vehicles;<
3. Issue directions under Section 5 of the said Act, including banning or restricting an industry, process of operation emitting noise;
4. Deal with environmental issues pertaining to the National Capital Region;
5. Monitor the progress of the action plan for control of pollution drawn up by MoEF as contained in the White Paper on Pollution in Delhi with Action Plan; e.
6. Exercise the power of entry, inspection, search and seizure under Section 10 of the said Act.
The above powers and functions of EPCA are subject to the supervision and control of the Central Government. The Authority shall have its headquarters in the National Capital Region and shall furnish a progress report of its activities at least once in 2 months to the Central Government.
5.5.4 Loss of Ecology (Prevention and payments of Compensation) Authority for the State of Tamil Nadu.
In compliance with the Hon’ble Supreme Court’s order dated August 28, 1998 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 914 of 1991 viz. Vellore Citizen’s Welfare Forum versus Union of India and Others, the Ministry constituted the Loss of Ecology (Prevention and payments of Compensation) Authority for the State of Tamil Nadu under the Chairmanship of a retired Judge of madras High Court vide notification SO 671 (E) dated September 30, 1996, to deal with the situation created by the tanneries and other pollution industries in Tamil Nadu. The tenure of the authority has been extended until further orders in compliance with the Hon’ble Supreme Court’s order dated 28 th February, 2011.
5.5.5 Planning Commission.
The Planning Commission was set up by a Resolution of the Government of India in March 1950 in pursuance of declared objectives of the Government to promote a rapid rise in the standard of living of the people by efficient exploitation of the resources of the country, increasing production and offering opportunities to all for employment in the service of the community. The Planning Commission was charged with the responsibility of making assessment of all resources of the country, augmenting deficient resources, formulating plans for the most effective and balanced utilisation of resources and determining priorities.
The Planning commission is an important stakeholder of the Air Quality Management framework of the country. ‘Environment and Forest Division’ of the Planning Commission forms a working group for the five year plans, where it addresses air pollution issues. The working group report on Environment and Environmental Regulatory Mechanism in environment and forests for the 11th five year plan has a dedicated Chapter 4 on air pollution and air quality management. This report covers in detail the pitfalls and the areas of improvement in air quality management.
5.5.6 Other Government Agencies (Indirectly Involved)
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC), Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council (TIFAC) and other Local Municipal Corporations are other government agency stakeholders who are undertaking small steps in their own capacity to improve air quality in the country. Listed below is the review of the initiatives taken by these agencies:
1. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE): BEE’s objective is of reducing energy intensity of the Indian economy through increased adoption of energy efficiency across sectors.
2. Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC): PPAC provides authentic data for policy analysis in the hydrocarbon sector. It comes up with studies on petroleum products, their demands and their pricing. It also engages in planning policy for the MoPNG.
3. Technology Information Forecasting Assessment Council (TIFAC) : As the Indian National Member Organisation (NMO) for IIASA(International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis), TIFAC’s role is to primarily identify, initiate and catalyze collaborative activities that utilize IIASA’s strengths thorough the India-IIASA Programme which is guided an Indian National committee chaired by Dr Kirit S Parikh, Member Planning Commission.
IIASA-TIFAC-NEERI organised a Workshop on Feb 6-9, 2012 offer insight into the methodology and practical hands-on experience to users of IIASA’s GAINS[42] (Greenhouse gas – Air pollution Interactions and Synergies) model. The primary audience was national and regional experts who analyze and process data for the whole air pollution cycle at national and regional level. GAINS methodology of calculating emissions of air pollutants and GHGs, costs of emission control strategies, and the resulting environmental impacts was introduced through presentations and trainings.[43]
Local Municipal Corporations: These bodies look into taking local actions towards improving transport and mobility issues to reduce air pollution in their constituencies.
5.6 Associations.
Associations form an important part of the stakeholder group of the air quality management framework of the country.
5.6.1 Indian Association for Air Pollution Control (IAAPC)[44]
IAAPC is the first ever association on air pollution control in the country. It launched its website presence on 11 th May, 200. The Association has a very strong network of air quality experts across the country, CPCB officials, media personnel, etc in its membership forum.
The aim and objectives of Indian Association for Air Pollution Control are – to promote an understanding of the Air environment, its pollution and effects on human beings, animals, plants and materials and control of such pollution and provide an effective forum for exchange of views and Information about air environment to help to educate the general public, and to create mass awareness for air pollution control.
5.6.2 Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM)
Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM) is the apex Industry body representing 46 leading vehicle and vehicular engine manufacturers in India. SIAM is an important channel of communication for the Automobile Industry with the Government, National and International organisations. The Society works closely with all the concerned stake holders and actively participates in formulation of rules, regulations and policies related to the Automobile Industry. SIAM understands its role in the air quality management framework and therefore, it lays emphasis on reducing the environmental impact caused by vehicular emissions. It underlines the need for a holistic framework for controlling pollution in the country. It also emphasises the need for strict Inspection and Certification norms, Fuel quality norms and emission norms.
SIAM has incorporated an independent body Society for Automotive Fitness & Environment (SAFE) in order to achieve advancement of Inspection & Certification (I&C) of vehicles and increased safety on roads. SAFE organizes Inspection clinics for in-use vehicles and training workshops for pollution checking technicians in various parts of the country. These programmes are aimed to create awareness on importance of regular maintenance amongst vehicle owners. It is one of the most effective ways to control emission levels from vehicles in the country. In addition SAFE organizes seminars with State Governments and other stakeholders.[45]
5.6.3 Suzlon Powered PALS (Pure Air Lovers Society)
The Pure Air Lovers Society (p. a.l. s.) are a group of environmentally conscious people who love pure air and want to live in a cleaner and healthier tomorrow. Together, they work against the threat of air pollution to bring about a clean air revolution in India. This campaign is powered by Suzlon. PALS have a tool zone, which has a green vendor list, a PUC Check Reminder, a car pool identifier, a AQI widget for a blog, green tips. green e-books, membership to being a P. A.L. The programme has 11.7 lakh PALS registered with itself.
5.6.4 Confederation of Indian Industry (CII)
CII is a non-government, not-for-profit, industry led and industry managed organisation, playing a proactive role in India’s development process. Founded over 117 years ago, it is India’s premier business association, with a direct membership of over 7000 organisations , and an indirect membership of over 90,000 companies from around 400 national and regional sectoral associations. CII catalyses change by working closely with government on policy issues, enhancing efficiency, competitiveness and expanding business opportunities for industry through a range of specialised services and global linkages. It has garnered partnerships with over 120 NGOs across the country.
The Environment (Development Initiative) division of CII fuels a number of initiatives in the domains of power sector, mining sector, low carbon leadership, environment policy advocacy, climate change, business and sustainable Development.
Environment Policy Division of CII works closely with the Government of India. The policy division represents industry on several government committees and over the years has successfully developed a credible partnership with policy makers and regulators like Ministry of Environment & Forests, Central Pollution Control Board and State Pollution Control Boards. The objective of this partnership is to facilitate the formulation and implementation of an enabling policy framework for ensuring sustainable industrial development.
CII has also established the following Centres of Excellence, which are doing a fine job in the domain of environment:
1. CII - ITC Centre of Sustainable Development.
2. CII - Sohrabji Green Business Centre.
5.6.5 Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI)
Established in 1927, FICCI is the largest and oldest apex business organisation in India. Its history is closely interwoven with India’s struggle for independence, its industrialization, and its emergence as one of the most rapidly growing global economies. FICCI has contributed to this historical process by encouraging debate, articulating the private sector’s views and influencing policy.
FICCI has recognised the need to address air pollution control and monitoring and is conducting an annual conference cum workshop on the same since 2011.[46]
FICCI undertakes various initiatives in the field of environment through its ‘Environment and Climate Change’ division. The department recently conducted the ‘India Sustainability Conclave 2012’ to address sustainable development issues. FICCI also offers services like studies, surveys, policy advocacy and publications.
5.6.6 ASSOCHAM (The Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India)
ASSOCHAM initiated its endeavour of value creation for Indian industry in 1920. Having in its fold more than 300 Chambers and Trade Associations, and serving more than 2 lakh members from all over India. It has witnessed upswings as well as upheavals of Indian Economy, and contributed significantly by playing a catalytic role in shaping up the Trade, Commerce and Industrial environment of the country.
ASSOCHAM offers its services in the field of environment; its agenda also includes prevention against pollution.[47] To this effect, ASSOCHAM organised a National Conference on ‘Environmental Legislation and Technology – Curtain Raiser’ in March 2011 to discuss the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 and other environmental legislations for conservation of environment and abatement of pollution.[48]
5.6.7 The Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA)
A group of committed organizations joined forces in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development to launch the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA) to curb the ill effects of indoor air pollution. Already, key PCIA Partners have reported helping 1.4 million households to adopt clean cooking and heating practices, reducing harmful exposures for more than 7.6 million people. These Partners plan to reach another 6 million households by 2010. PCIA is managed by US EPA and Winrock International. They have an India presence through their Indian member NGOs who work for implementing Clean Cookstoves in rural hubs for reduced indoor pollution.[49]
In its endeavour of reducing indoor air pollution, PCIA has made available a new publication entitled “Test Results of Cook Stove Performance.” This document was developed by Aprovecho Research Center under a grant from the Shell Foundation to provide technical support to household energy and health projects and to ensure that the projects’ designs represent the best available technical practices. Test Results of Cook Stove Performance will be a major step forward in developing an integrated approach to cook stove design which will eventually lead to reduced indoor air pollution.[50]
5.6.8 Review of Associations.
Industry associations have a big role to play in lobbying for effective industrial emission standards and EIA norms so that the regulatory agencies can implement the “polluter must pay” principle and safeguard the environment, in the interest of a better future for people of the country.
5.7 Academic and Research Institutes.
Various research and academic institutes in the country are working in the field of air quality management on issues such as policy advocacy, emission inventorization, source apportionment, dispersion modeling and air quality control. Various medical research institutes are also studying air pollution impact on health and environment. Given below in a tabulated form is the comprehensive list of research, academic and medical research institutes working in the domain of air quality management.
Table 2: Research and Academic Institutes working on Air Quality Management.
Table 1.1 : List of Academic and Research Institutes working on Air Quality Management in India.
5.7.2 Review of the Work of Academic/ Research Institutes.
There is a dearth of researchers working in the field of air quality management in the country. It is important for India as a country to develop a comprehensive framework for air quality management; this can only be possible when the country develops a strong research database of emission inventories, source apportionment studies, dispersion models, air pollution environment impact studies, health risk assessment of air pollution and policy intervention impact studies. Thus, it becomes an imperative for the government to fuel research on these research topics more from the point of view of seeking policy level changes in the framework rather than an academic exercise.
There is also an immediate need for development of a GIS based sector-wise and pollutant-wise database of emission inventory for the country. This will not only help in solving air quality issues at local level but also at regional scale. 29
5.8 Non-Government Organisations.
A few prominent Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) have been identified to be working in the domain of air quality management. A brief description of their initiatives and a review of their organisation’s work is given below:
5.8.1 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
CSE started its urban air quality programme in 1996 to protect public health in Indian cities. The programme elicited tremendous response from the government, the public and the judiciary. In the past ten years, CSE’s programme, supported by judicial action, has successfully catalysed significant changes to lower air pollution levels in the capital city. Some of the key developments with which CSE has been deeply involved include advancement of emissions standards for new vehicles, lowering of sulphur content in diesel and petrol, lowering of benzene to 1 per cent, implementation of the largest ever CNG programme for the public transportation systems, phasing out of the 15 year old commercial vehicles and improvement in inspection and maintenance programme for in-use vehicles. Simultaneously, certain important cross cutting measures including the strengthening of air quality monitoring and checking of fuel adulteration were brought to focus. CSE has remained deeply involved with the air quality management policies, policy discussions on ambient air quality standards and pollution sources. As rapid increase in vehicle numbers and the transportation challenge has emerged as the key area of this programme, CSE has therefore broadened the scope of its policy advocacy to promote public transport strategy and mobility management strategies. Listed below are a few of their initiatives in this sector:
CSE organised a ‘Dialogue on air pollution and our health’[1] in August 2011. Noted doctors, health researchers and air quality regulators met in the capital to warn that cities may wake up to more wheeze and other ailments if health concerns are not heeded for air pollution control. The dialogue exposed mounting evidences on health effect of air pollution in India and abroad that must drive policy action. CSE has conducted a ‘National Minimum Training Workshop for Regulators on Compliance Monitoring and Enforcement’ in February 2012[2] and conducted a media briefing on ‘Challenges of air quality and mobility management in South Asian cities’ in April 2011[3]. CSE also has websites like ‘downtoearth’ and ‘indiaenvironmentalportal’ to its credit. These websites are a repository of environmental information and also highlight CSE’s policy perspective. They have a separate vertical on air pollution in each of these websites.
5.8.2 The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
TERI was formally established in 1974 with the purpose of tackling and dealing with the immense and acute problems that mankind is likely to face within in the years ahead. The global presence and reach attained by TERI are not only substantiated by its presence in different parts of the world, but also in terms of the wide geographical relevance of its activities. Symbolic of this fact is the annual Delhi Sustainable Development Summit (DSDS), a major event focusing on sustainable development, the pursuit of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and assessment of worldwide progress in these critical areas. Encouraged by the success of DSDS, TERI has now established the World Sustainable Development Forum (WSDF), which is guided by the patronage of a group of select world leaders. WSDF intends to extend the experience of each DSDS to other parts of the world and carry out careful evaluation and monitoring of developments worldwide, particularly in meeting the MDGs. TERI focuses on different focus areas of climate change research which include, impacts and vulnerability assessment, adaptation strategies, exploring GHG mitigation options and issues therein, climate change policies and climate modeling activities.
TERI is another important NGO stakeholder which plays an active role in policy advocacy, in the field of air quality management. It organises workshops, training programmes and seminars to help disseminate knowledge about the technical aspects of air quality modeling and monitoring. A few of their projects in this domain are listed below:
1. TERI Mumbai organized a two-day training workshop on ‘Air Quality Modeling and Management’ at Hotel Tunga, Navi Mumbai on 19-20 January 2012. The programme was aimed at bridging gap and capacity building of government officers, industrialists, environment consultants, and other stakeholders in the field of air quality modeling.
2. TERI published a case study on the ‘Urban Air Quality Management: A Case Study of Pune’[4].
3. TERI also organized a training programme on ‘Air Quality Modeling and Management’ from 30 June to 1 July 2011. The programme aimed to bridge the gap and build the capacity of State Pollution Control Board (SPCB), Industries, and other stakeholders in the field of air quality modeling. The programme built the concepts of air quality modeling, demonstrated the use of air quality models, and provided ready to use course material on the subject[5].
4. TERI has also assisted CPCB in carrying out emission inventory studies in various cities.
5.8.3 Clean Air Initiative – Asia (CAI - Asia)
The mission of the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities (CAI-Asia) is to promote better air quality and livable cities by translating knowledge to policies and actions that reduce air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from transport, energy and other sectors. It was established in 2001 by ADB, the World Bank and USAID as part of a global initiative that also includes Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa.
Since 2007, CAI-Asia is a registered UN Type II Partnership with more than 200 organizational members, eight Country Networks, and the CAI-Asia Center as its secretariat, a non-profit organization headquartered in Manila, Philippines with offices in China and India. CAI Asia has undertaken the following initiatives to promote better air quality:
1. Better Air Quality (BAQ): The Better Air Quality conference is the flagship event of the Clean Air Initiative for Asian Cities. This biennial event brings policymakers and stakeholders together to network, learn and share experiences on air quality management. Past BAQs have proven to influence policies, initiate new projects and establish partnerships.
2. Air Pollution in the Megacities of Asia (APMA): The APMA project was funded in Phase II of RAPIDC and is a joint initiative of WHO and UNEP being coordinated by SEI. It has developed as a key player in the regional approach to developing capacity for urban policy makers in a city network being coordinated by the Clean Air Initiative-Asia (CAI-Asia) from its office at ADB in Manila.[6]
3. CAI-Asia released its report on Air Quality in Asia – Status and Trends 2010 Edition. This report is composed of two parts: Status and Trends of Air Quality, which provides a snapshot of air quality levels in 2008 and trends of air quality from 1993 to 2008 & Status of Air Quality Standards, which provides an overview of the ambient air quality standards adopted by developing Asian countries.[7]
4. CAI Asia partnered in ‘The Knowledge Partnership for measuring Air Pollution and GHG Emissions in Asia’, which sought to help policy makers, development agencies and other stakeholders in Asia to have better access to air quality and climate change data to further enrich policy development activities and development interventions relevant to energy and transport sectors and urban development. This initiative supported (1) the development of guidelines for air pollution and GHG emissions indicators for transport and energy sectors and (2) the collection and updating of input data to derive indicators. The project covers road transport and electricity generation and includes 13 Asian countries and 23 cities. World Bank Development Grant Facility (DGF) is one of its donors.[8]
5. CAI Asia has undertaken several other projects like ‘Walkability Study in Asian Cities’, ‘Communicating Air Quality at Commonwealth Games Delhi 2010’, and worked extensively on ‘Sustainable Urban Mobility in Asia’.
5.8.4 Development Alternatives (DA)
Development Alternatives (DA) has acted as a research and action organisation, designing and delivering eco-solutions for the poor and the marginalised. DA is a not-for-profit organisation which has signed a memorandum of understanding has been signed between DA and CPCB to mutually assist each other and develop a strategic collaboration to strengthen existing initiatives for community based environmental action in urban India.
DA has also advocated the replacement of polluting FCBTK (Fixed Chimney Bull Trench Kiln) with VSBKs (Vertical Shaft Brick Kilns) to reduce air pollution caused by these brick kilns.
The CLEAN-India programme, under the Development Alternatives Group, aims to mobilise community responsibility for environment assessment and improvement in all-major towns and cities of India through a network of schools and NGOs linked with government, business, academic and other institution.
Under this programme, systematic environmental quality assessment is undertaken by a network of schools supported by NGOs and validated by government and research institutions. Students of member schools are trained on scientific skills for monitoring the environment quality, which is done using field-based kits called Jal-TARA (for testing water quality) and Pawan-TARA (for testing air quality). The second component of the programme is to generate awareness among the communities and other sections of the society.
The key features of the programme are: Projection of assessed data to generate awareness and mobilize community members to initiate environmental improvement actions and Bringing the data to the notice of the local authorities / Pollution Control Boards for necessary action. The third component of the programme is advocacy with the collective efforts of NGOs and local government. This phase focuses on: Involving students and NGOs to convince civic agencies to take action against the degradation of their cities’ environment and Involving local authorities to bring about changes in policy and filing of Public Interest Litigations (PIL)[9].
Other NGOs working in this field on various issues related to better air quality in the country are EMBARQ, PSS (Paryavaran Suraksha Samiti), NEWS, Bombay Environment Action Group, PRASAR (People’s Rights & Social Research Centre), Vatavaran, etc.
5.8.6 Review of NGOs.
Selected NGOs are doing immense work on policy advocacy of the issue of air quality management in the country. They are engaging with stakeholders across the board and employing various ways to influence policy makers to adapt stricter air pollution norms. However, the issue of air pollution still doesn’t get its due share of importance from the civil societies operating in India.
5.9 International Agencies and Bilateral Organisations.
There are various inter-governmental organisations, international agencies and bilateral organisations working for the improvement of air quality in India. Listed below are a selected few along with their initiatives in this field.
5.9.1 World Health Organisation (WHO)
WHO is the United Nations’ specialized agency, working for ‘Health’. It is an inter-governmental organization and works in collaboration with its member states usually through the Ministries of Health. WHO’s objective is the attainment by all people of the highest possible level of health.
An indicative list of projects or research studies sponsored by WHO in the field of indoor and outdoor pollution are as follows:
Projects sponsored on ‘Outdoor Air Pollution’:
1. National Environmental Health Profile and Comparative Health Risk Assessment Bangalore City done by NIOH and ICMR[10]
2. National Environmental Health Profile & Comparative Health Risk Assessment[11]
3. Baseline Assessment of Environmental Health Status in Chennai[12]
4. Epidemiological Study of Air Pollution Related Children’s Health in Rural, Suburban and Urban Areas of West Bengal[13]
Projects sponsored on Indoor Air Pollution:
1. Health effects of chronic exposure to smoke from biomass fuel burning in rural area.
2. Impact of Indoor Air Pollution from Biomass Fuel Burning on Reproductive Health and Neurobehavioral Symptoms of Premenopausal Women in Rural India[14]
5.9.2 Health Effects Institute (HEI)
The Health Effects Institute is a non-profit international corporation chartered in 1980 as an independent research organization to provide high-quality, impartial, and relevant science on the effects of air pollution on health.
In India, it has sponsored many studies on health effects of air pollution exposure on human beings. Given below is an indicative list of the projects in India:
1. Estimates of Population Exposure to Traffic-related Air Pollution in Beijing, China and New Delhi, India.
2. HEI publishes report on air pollution and mortality in India.
3. Outdoor Air Pollution and Health in the Developing Countries of Asia: A Comprehensive Review.
4. Short-Term Effects of Air Pollution on Mortality: Results from a Time-Series Analysis in Chennai, India” 2011
5. “Time-Series Study on Air Pollution and Mortality in Delhi” 2011
5.9.3 World Bank (WB)
The World Bank is one of the world’s largest sources of funding and knowledge for developing countries. India is one of its oldest members, having joined the institution at its inception in 1944.
In India, the World Bank works in close partnership with the Central and State Governments. It also works with other development partners: bilateral and multilateral donor organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), the private sector, and the general public—including academics, scientists, economists, journalists, teachers, and local people involved in development projects.
Following are the list of projects undertaken by World Bank in the field:
1. Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management Project ($65mn approved June 2010) to build tangible human and technical capacity in state agencies in Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal for undertaking environmentally sound remediation of polluted sites and to support the development of a policy, institutional and methodological framework for the establishment of a National Program for Rehabilitation of Polluted Sites (NPRPS).[15]
2. World Bank provides US$405 million to Support Urban Development in India: December 10, 2009.
3. As part of the World Bank-supported Mumbai Urban Transport Project or MUTP, a modern traffic management system is being introduced that is quietly reducing congestion on city roads.
Research Studies sponsored by World Bank:
1. Energy Intensive Sectors of the India Economy: Options for Low Carbon Development.
2. India 2030: Vision for an Environmentally Sustainable Future.
ESMAP: The Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is a global knowledge and technical assistance program administered by the World Bank. Its mission is to assist low - and middle-income countries to increase know-how and institutional capacity to achieve environmentally sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction and economic growth.
Since its inception in 1983, ESMAP has supported more than 800 energy-sector activities that promote poverty reduction, economic growth and low carbon development in over 100 countries.
5.9.4 United States Environment Protection Agency (US EPA)
Born in the wake of elevated concern about environmental pollution, EPA was established on December 2, 1970 to consolidate in one agency a variety of federal research, monitoring, standard-setting and enforcement activities to ensure environmental protection. Since its inception, EPA has been working for a cleaner, healthier environment for the American people. In the context of the U. S.’s expanding relationship with India, EPA is engaging with its Indian partners to protect the environment in new and collaborative ways. Recent work includes implementation of pilot programs in the areas of drinking water quality and air quality management. Today, the Government of India and EPA are evaluating new ways to partner on governance issues and addressing the trans-boundary movement of e-waste into India.
A Memorandum of Understanding between the Environment Protection Agency of USA and The MoEF, Government of India concerning co-operation in environmental protection. (2002-12) provides policy and technical cooperation between the two agencies in four areas: Urban Air quality management, Water quality management, Management of Toxic Chemicals and hazardous waste, and Environmental Governance[16]
Given below is a list of projects undertaken by the US EPA for improving air quality in India:
1. Building Strong Institutions and Legal Structures: EPA has engaged with India’s Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) to cooperate on building strong environmental institutional structures. To achieve this, EPA has supported MoEF in the creation of a new Central Government institution to address environmental notifications and violations. Through a training workshop to State Pollution Control Boards in January 2011, EPA has also provided enforcement tools and concepts that can be applicable in the Indian context.
2. Improving Air Quality: EPA has engaged with India to support science-based air pollution control strategies in Indian cities. With the cooperation of MoEF, the State of Maharashtra, the Municipality of Pune, as well as a number of other partners, EPA has helped demonstrate technologies which can assist decision makers in developing policies aimed at reducing air pollution. These technologies include the tools and concepts used in air quality management, as well as demonstrations for reducing vehicle emissions from diesel buses and two-cycle engines.
3. Capacity Building for Industrial Pollution Management[17] is another programme by USEPA for strengthening the air quality management framework in the country.
4. Methane-to-Markets Partnership: India and the U. S. are founding country partners of the Methane to Markets Partnership to reduce global methane emissions to enhance economic growth, improve the environment, promote energy security, and reduce greenhouse gases. Other benefits include improving mine safety, reducing waste, and improving local air quality.
5. Power Plant Emissions Project: This program builds on results of a 2004 Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) hosted workshop on air pollution monitoring and control from power plants, and a 2005 National Thermal Power Corporation hosted training course on EPA’s software tool used to assist power plants in optimizing performance of their electrostatic precipitators (ESP). The next phase will demonstrate the ESP optimization tool at a power plant to identify cost effective alternatives to reduce PM emissions, as well as evaluate co-benefit mercury emissions reductions, including training and transfer of stack emissions monitoring technology. EPA will also share expertise on cap-and-trade programs for reducing power plant emissions, and will provide consultative support to MoEF and CPCB as they develop NOx emission standards for power plants in India, as currently planned.
6. Indoor Air Pollution from Chulhas (cookstoves): This program supports the goals of the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air to address the increased environmental health risk faced by a majority of Indians who burn traditional biomass and coal indoors for cooking and heating, resulting in an estimated 400,000 premature deaths annually – primarily among women and children. Efforts are aimed at bringing together governments, non-governmental organizations, and industry to work on: improving the design and performance of cooking and heating technology; social awareness and marketing; business development; and monitoring indoor air pollution.
USEPA has actively initiated a number of programs under its mandate of technical co-operation with India on environment issues. Given below are the initiatives undertaken in the programme on Urban Air Quality Management.
1. Clean Fuels and Vehicles.
EPA is also pursuing a program specifically addressing vehicle emissions concerns in India, and in support of EPA’s Commitments under the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles. Key elements of this program in India include (a) Training and field demonstrations of the International Vehicle Emissions Inventory Model (IVEM), to better characterize the contribution of vehicles to the overall air pollution problem in Indian cities; (b) Training and technology transfer on portable emissions testing technologies, to provide an easier, less expensive tool to quantify and characterize vehicle emissions; and (c) demonstration project on retrofit technologies on-the-ground in Pune, India for diesel buses and autorickshaws. EPA is also interested in working with India on assessing benefits of upgrading India’s refineries to reduce sulfur in both diesel and gasoline fuels.
2. Industrial Emissions.
EPA has supported several activities in India addressing monitoring and control technology for air pollution from Coal-Fired Power Plants, including workshop on monitoring and control technologies, and hands-on training on EPA software tools to help optimize performance of electrostatic precipitators. EPA has also supported programs to assist India in addressing air and other pollution from Petroleum Refining.
3. Indoor Air Pollution.
This program supports the goals of the Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (PCIA) to address the increased environmental health risk faced by a majority of Indians who burn traditional biomass and coal indoors for cooking and heating, resulting in an estimated 400,000 premature deaths annually – primarily among women and children. Efforts are aimed at bringing together governments, non-governmental organizations, and industry to work on: improving the design and performance of cooking and heating technology; social awareness and marketing; business development; and monitoring indoor air pollution. The 2007 global meeting of the PCIA was held in Bangalore, India.
4. Other Air Quality Cooperation.
EPA has also engaged India in areas such as Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants (LRTAP) and Emissions Trading as a tool for managing air pollution emissions.
5.9.5 Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The UNDP, UNEP, and World Bank were the three initial partners implementing GEF projects. In 1994, GEF was restructured and moved out of the World Bank system to become a permanent, separate institution. The decision to make the GEF an independent organization enhanced the involvement of developing countries in the decision-making process and in implementation of the projects.
The GEF also serves as financial mechanism for the following conventions:
1. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
2. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
3. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
4. UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
5. The GEF, although not linked formally to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (MP), supports implementation of the Protocol in countries with economies in transition.
India is one founding member of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), the largest global multilateral funding mechanism providing incremental project grant to the developing countries on global environmental issues with local benefits. Set up in 1991, 182 country governments are its members. India is both a donor and recipient of GEF grant. India’s Executive Director in the World Bank chairs and represents the GEF South Asia Constituency (comprising of Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives and Sri Lanka) in the GEF Council meetings twice a year.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is the GEF Operational Focal Point (GEF OFP) for India for coordination and operational matters. Department of Economic Affairs (DEA) in Ministry of Finance is the GEF Political Focal Point (GEF PFP) for India dealing with policy and governance issues. The GEF Empowered Committee chaired by Secretary (E&F) guides, approves and overlooks GEF operations in the country. Since 1991, India has accessed USD 327 million as GEF grant and of this USD 154 million was accessed during the GEF 4 cycle (July 2006 – June 2010). Since inception, about USD 2 billion has been leveraged as project co-financing. India has contributed USD 51 million to the GEF Trust Fund (1991 – June 2014).
Projects funded by GEF:
1. India – Sustainable Urban Transport Project:
Objective: Reduction of the growth trajectory of GHG emissions from the transport sector in India through the promotion of environmentally sustainable urban transport, strengthening government capacity to plan, finance, implement, operate, and manage climate friendly and sustainable urban transport interventions at national, state and city levels, and increasing the modal share of environmentally friendly transport modes in project cities.
The India Sustainable Urban Transport Program (SUTP) under GEF4 was an umbrella program focussed on developing necessary national, state and city level capacity in urban transport planning and kick-starting the process through some high impact demonstration projects on Bus Rapid Transit, Non-motorized Transport, ITS in a few cities (5 cities). It was not designed to systematically address bus services and operations in major cities. The GEF proposal deepens and takes forward the earlier initiative for promoting public transport by focusing more comprehensively on city bus transport and treating the multiple issues – operational , financial, regulatory, fiscal - facing it. The proposed GEF intervention aimed at efficiency measures encouraging a shift from personal to public mode of transport leading to low carbon cities in India[18]
2. Development of a National Implementation Plan in India as a First Step to Implement the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) was also funded by GEF[19]
3. A project on Efficient and Sustainable City Bus Services was also funded by GEF[20].
4. Project on ‘Selected Options for Stabilizing Greenhouse Gas Emissions for Sustainable Development in India’[21]
5. Project on ‘Energy Efficiency Improvements in the Indian Brick Industry’[22]
6. Country Case Study: Investing in Sustainable Urban Transport – GEF Experience in India[23]
7. Small Grants Programme (SGP), funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), seeks to support initiatives, which demonstrate community-based innovative, gender sensitive approaches and lessons learned from other development projects in order to reduce threats to the local and global environment. SGP is administered by the UNDP and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF), Government of India. It is being implemented by Centre for Environment Education (CEE) as the National Host Institution (NHI) since September 2000.
5.9.6 Advisory Services in Environmental Management (ASEM)
India and Germany agreed that environmental management is an important area in the framework of bilateral development co-operation. Environment is one of the most important areas in the Indo-German bilateral relations, especially in areas where Germany has comparative advantage with focus on knowledge transfer, technology transfer, exchange of experiences and demonstration projects. To enhance the success of the previous joint work, the German Agency for International Cooperation (GIZ,) and the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India (MoEF) decided to work in a structure called ASEM. Environment protection and industrial and urban environmental management are the key elements of any international or national environment protection program.
ASEM has undertaken the following initiatives in the domain of air quality management in the recent past:
1. Air pollution source apportionment studies[24]: In view of the high requirements for controlling air pollution due to its potential impact on human health, there is a need to have advanced assessment and apportionment of the pollution loads from various sources viz. traffic, industry etc. CPCB sought the support of ASEM to provide the needed technical support in this regard.
2. Air Quality Data Acquisition System: CPCB sought support of GTZ ASEM for further strengthening the data acquisition system in India. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has set up the following three automatic continuous ambient air quality monitoring stations and a mobile monitoring station in Delhi, with assistance by GTZ assistance.
3. Renovation of Air & Water Labs at CPCB[25] was also done with the technical expertise of ASEM.
The Indo - German collaboration has instituted a programme called “ Challenges and opportunities in Air Pollution and Climate Change” (CHOP-C) to further strengthen the diplomatic ties between the two nations. Under this programme the following workshops and conferences were conducted to address the challenge of combating air pollution and climate change:
5.9.7 Other International organisations working in this domain.
JICA, Indo-German Collaboration (CHOP - C), EU India APSF - Environment, USAID, SIDA, DFID, AFD (French Aid for Development), UK in FCO, and UNEP among other bilateral developmental agencies are also doing work in the field of environment in India.
5.9.8 Review of the role of International/Bilateral Organisations.
These agencies have been providing aid to India on the subject matter of air pollution through their funds in climate change and environment. Most of these agencies are providing India with technical expertise and know-how in this field to help India achieve better air quality in times to come. However, their role and scope are both limited.
5.10 Media Stakeholders.
Various media corporations, associations and personnel are involved in creating awareness about system of air quality management in the country and disseminating the important information on air pollution and its health impacts to the masses, so that they can take adequate steps to protect their interests. Given below is a list of prominent media stakeholders and their review:
5.10.1 Forum of Environmental Journalists of India (FEJI)
This is a forum for environmental journalists in the country. However, there exists no website for this forum. Even though, the forum is active through its ‘google group’ interface.
5.10.2 CMS ENVIS Centre.
CMS Envis is a premiere centre designated by the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, to facilitate information dissemination and further the cause of environmental awareness and sensitization. It has established itself as a key resource center, coordinating body and platform for information dissemination on environmental communication, strategies and media related activities.
CMS – Envis supports a database of Environmental Journalists from across the country[26]. It has published a paper on ‘Trends of Environmental news in National Dailies’[27] and one comparative ‘Study On Environmental Awareness and Environmentally Beneficial Behavior in India’[28]. It has also published ‘A Study on Social & Environmental Impact of T. V And Radio Programmes’[29]
5.10.3 Other Important Media Stakeholders.
Think to sustain, India Environment Portal, National geographic, Times of India, Hindustan Times, CNN-IBN, NDTV, Indian Express, The Telegraph, Mail Today, Reuters, The Hindu, Asian Age, Mint, India Today, BBC, The New Indian Express, India Carbon Outlook, Nature India, Scidev, The Asian Age, Mint, Press Trust of India, Indo Asian News Service, The Tribune, Gateway Media, Earth Journalism Network, Economic times, Zee News, Go Green India, Down to Earth, Dainik Jagran, Business Times, etc among others, are all important media stakeholders who are engaging in a comprehensive public outreach on this issue.
5.10.4 Review of the role of Media.
Media shoulders great responsibility for creating a comprehensive public outreach and awareness regarding the potential health impacts of the air we breathe. The media community as a whole must take this issue with great seriousness and must propel the citizens to his right of clean air while fulfilling his responsibilities as a citizen.
5.11 Website.
Various websites are contributing to the framework of air quality management in India. Listed below are a few important ones which are making the most impact.
5.11.1 IFMR pollution map.
The Environmentally Sustainable Finance Group launched India’s first online pollution map (indiapollutionmap). This map, piloted for the states of Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, aims to track changes in the country’s environmental levels and quality. The interactive web portal displays data from the national pollution monitoring programme along with demographic, socio-economic and pollution-related indicators. In this way, it not only interprets pollution data, but also guides action towards pollution mitigation.
The India Pollution Map has generated some maps based on data shared by SACEM (generated through their monitoring programme) in order to visualise them uniquely and for the community to understand this information.
5.11.2 UrbanEmissions. Info.
UrbanEmissions. info was founded by Dr. Sarath Guttikunda in 2007 with the vision to be a repository of information, research, and analysis related to air pollution. UrbanEmissions. info provides both organized knowledge base and understanding of simple analytical tools that may help support decision making for air quality management in India.
UrbanEmissions. Info, has four objectives:
1. Promote the sharing of knowledge base on air pollution analysis.
2. Analysis based on science.
3. Advocacy and awareness raising on air quality management and.
4. Building partnerships among local, national, and international stakeholders.
5.12 India Inc. Stakeholders.
5.12.1 About.
Various India Inc Stakeholders are working in the domain of creating value in the field of air quality management framework of the country through their CSR activities.
Listed below are the most prominent India Inc. stakeholders working in this domain:
1. 3 M India Ltd.
3. Bayer Crop Science Ltd.
4. Bharat Forge Ltd.
7. Shree Cements Ltd.
8. Tata Motors Ltd.
9. Reliance Industries Limited.
10. Escorts Group.
11. Shell Group and Shell Foundation.
12. Hira Group of Industries.
14. Jindal Steel and Power.
5.12.2 Review of the work by India Inc.
India Inc. as a whole must actively engage in concerted efforts towards cleaning the ambient air. It must imbibe environment responsibility within its culture and ensure that all its processes and practices.
6.0 CONCLUSION.
6.1 Recommendations.
The report provides a summary table for the compilation of the all the review results of all the identified stakeholder groups.
Table 3: Summary table of recommendations.
6.2 Proposed Air Quality Management Framework for India.
Given below in Figure 5 is the proposed Air Quality Management Framework for the country.
6.3 Limitations.
1. Data Limitation: All the factual information documented in this report was available in the public domain and was accessed only through the medium of internet. There may have been more information available which may not have been covered in this report if it were not updated on the online interface.
2. Time Restraint: The research work was carried out over a period of 3 months and this field of study requires more time.
3. Scope of Work: Research was carried out within the scope of work boundaries and most organisations peripheral to the scope were not plotted in the stakeholder categories.
8.0 APPENDIX.
8.1 Annexure I: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (Revised in 1994 & 1998)[1]
[Size less than 10 µm]
8.2 Annexure II: National Ambient Air Quality Standards (Revised in 2009)[2]
*Source: ‘Air Quality Monitoring Regime in India - An Overview’, Centre for Development Finance (Page 9 &10)
[1] Original source : CPCB.
[2] Smith KR. Inaugural article: national burden of disease in India from indoor air pollution. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2000 ; 97 : 13286 – 93.
[3] Smith, K. R. Indoor air pollution implicated in alarming health problems. In: Indoor Air Pollution – Energy and Health for the Poor. Newsletter published by World Bank, p.1, 2000.
[4] Background Paper Prepared for The Atlantic Council of USA Paper by Sajal Ghosh CII on ‘Sustainable energy policies for clean air in India’
[8] The case study has been developed from the Discussion Paper on “Who changed Delhi’s air?” by Urvashi Narain and Ruth Greenspan Bell (ageconsearch. umn. edu/bitstream/10466/1/dp050048.pdf)
[9] Various parts of the report on “Environmental Governance and Role of Judiciary in India” by Dr. Geetanjoy Sahu of Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC),Bangalore have been included in this section (isec. ac. in/Environmental_%20governance_%20and_%20role_%20of_%20judiciary_%20in_%20India. pdf)
[18] NTPC is India’s largest power company and also a public sector undertaking.
[21] RPO (Renewable Purchase Obligations): Under these rules, distribution companies, open access consumers and captive consumers are obligated to buy a certain percentage of their power from renewable sources of energy. The percentage varies from one state to the other.
[22] Detailed description on the Taj project initiatives: petroleum. nic. in/envtaj. htm.
[27] Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010 : cpcb. nic. in/IIMLko. pdf.
[36] Evaluation of CPCB by IIM Lucknow February 2010 : cpcb. nic. in/IIMLko. pdf.
[38] Parliamentary Standing Committee on Science and Technology, Environment & Forests (Rajya Sabha Committee), 192nd report on functioning of central pollution control board.

Biodiversity & Human Well-being.
6. What actions can be taken to conserve biodiversity?
6.1 How do protected areas benefit biodiversity and humans? 6.2 Can economic incentives benefit biodiversity and local communities? 6.3 How can invasive species be addressed? 6.4 How do protected areas benefit biodiversity and humans? 6.4.1 Strategies for integrating biodiversity issues in production sectors 6.4.2 Contributions of the private sector to biodiversity objectives 6.5 What governance approaches can promote biodiversity conservation? 6.6 What are the key factors of success of conservation actions? 6.7 How could important drivers of biodiversity loss be addressed?
The source document for this Digest states:
Biodiversity loss is driven by local, regional, and global factors, so responses are also needed at all scales. Responses need to acknowledge multiple stakeholders with different needs. Given certain conditions, many effective responses are available to address the issues identified. Responses designed to address biodiversity loss will not be sustainable or sufficient unless relevant direct and indirect drivers of change are addressed. Further progress in reducing biodiversity loss will come through greater coherence and synergies among sectoral responses and through more systematic consideration of trade-offs among ecosystem services or between biodiversity conserВ­vation and other needs of society.
Some drivers of biodiversity loss are localized, such as overexploitation. Others are global, such as climate change, while many operate at a variety of scales, such as the local impacts of invasive species through global trade. Most of the responses assessed here were designed to address the direct drivers of biodiversity loss. However, these drivers are better seen as symptoms of the indirect drivers, such as unsustainable patterns of consumption, demographic change, and globalization.
At the local and regional scale, responses to the drivers may promote both local biodiversity and human well-being by acting on the synergies between maintenance of local biodiversity and provision of key ecosystem services. Responses promoting local management for global biodiversity values depend on local “capture” of the global values in a way that provides both ongoing incentives for management and support for local well-being ( R5 ).
At the global scale, effective responses set priorities for conservation and development efforts in different regions and create shared goals or programs, such as the biodiversity-related conventions and the Millennium Development Goals. Effective trade-offs and synergies will be promoted when different strategies or instruments are used in an integrated, coordinated way ( R5 ).
The MA assessment of biodiversity responses places human well-being as the central focus for assessment, recognizing that people make decisions concerning ecosystems based on a range of values related to well-being, including the use and non-use values of biodiversity and ecosystems. The assessment therefore has viewed biodiversity responses as addressing values at different scales, with strong links to ecosystem service values and well-being arising at each of these scales. The well-being of local people dominates the assessment of many responses, including those relating to protected areas, governance, wild species management, and various responses related to local capture of benefits.
Focusing exclusively on values at only one level often hinders responses that could promote values at all levels or reconcile conflicts between the levels. Effective responses function across scales, addressing global values of biodiversity while identifying opportunity costs or synergies with local values. Local consideration of global biodiversity recognizes the value of what is unique at a place (or what is not yet protected elsewhere). The values of ecosystem services, on the other hand, do not always depend on these unique elements. Effective biodiversity responses recognize both kinds of values. These considerations guide the assessment summarized in this section of a range of response strategies that to varying degrees integrate global and local values and that seek effective trade-offs and synergies for biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being.
Difficulties in measuring biodiversity have complicated assessments of the impact of response strategies. Developing better indicators of biodiversity would enhance integration among strategies and instruments. For example, existing measures often focus on local biodiversity and do not estimate the marginal gains in regional or global biodiversity values. Similarly, biodiversity gains from organic farming are typically expressed only as localized species richness, with no consideration of the degree of contribution to regional or global biodiversity or the trade-offs with high-productivity industrial agriculture.
6.1 How do protected areas benefit biodiversity and humans?
The source document for this Digest states:
Protected areas are an extremely important part of programs to conserve biodiversity and ecosystems, especially for sensitive habitats ( R5 ). Recent assessments have shown that at the global and regional scales, the existence of current PAs, while essential, is not sufficient for conservation of the full range of biodiversity. Protected areas need to be better located, designed, and managed to deal with problems like lack of representativeness, impacts of human settlement within protected areas, illegal harvesting of plants and animals, unsustainable tourism, impacts of invasive alien species, and vulnerability to global change. Marine and freshwater ecosystems are even less well protected than terrestrial systems, leading to increasing efforts to expand PAs in these biomes. Efforts to expand marine protected areas are also spurred by strong evidence of positive synergies between conservation within PAs and sustainable use immediately outside their boundaries ( C18 ). However, marine protected area management poses special challenges, as enforcement is difficult and much of the world’s oceans lie outside national jurisdictions.
Based on a survey of management effectiveness of a sample of nearly 200 protected areas in 34 countries, only 12% were found to have implemented an approved management plan. The assessment concluded that PA design, legal establishment, boundary demarcation, resource inventory, and objective setting were relatively well addressed. But management planning, monitoring and evaluation, and budgets for security and law enforcement were generally weak among the surveyed areas. Moreover, the “paper park” problem remains, whereby geographic areas may be labeled as some category of protected area but not achieve the promised form of management ( R5 ).
Protected areas may contribute to poverty where rural people are excluded from resources that have traditionally supported their well-being. However, PAs can contribute to improved livelihoods when they are managed to benefit local people ( R5 ). Relations with local people should be addressed more effectively through participatory consultation and planning. One possible strategy is to promote the broader use of IUCN protected areas management categories. Success depends on a collaborative management approach between government and stakeholders, an adaptive approach that tests options in the field, comprehensive monitoring that provides information on management success or failure, and empowerment of local communities through an open and transparent system that clarifies access and ownership of resources.
Success of protected areas as a response to biodiversity loss requires better site selection and incorporation of regional trade-offs to avoid some ecosystems from being poorly represented while others are overrepresented. Success of PAs depends on adequate legislation and management, sufficient resources, better integration with the wider region surrounding protected areas, and expanded stakeholder engagement ( R5 ). Moreover, representation and management targets and performance indicators work best when they go beyond measuring the total area apparently protected. Indicators of percent-area coverage of PAs, as associated with the Millennium Development Goals and other targets, for example, only provide a broad indication of the actual extent of protection afforded by PA systems, but regional and national-level planning requires targets that take into account trade-offs and synergies with other ecosystem services.
Protected area design and management will need to take into account the impacts of climate change. The impacts of climate change will increase the risk of extinctions of certain species and change the nature of ecosystems. Shifts in species distribution as a result of climate change are well documented ( C4, C19, C25 ). Today’s species conservation plans may incorporate adaptation and mitigation aspects for this threat, drawing on existing tools to help assess species’ vulnerability to climate change. Corridors and other habitat design aspects to give flexibility to protected areas are effective precautionary strategies. Improved management of habitat corridors and production ecosystems between protected areas will help biodiversity adapt to changing conditions ( R5 ).
6.2 Can economic incentives benefit biodiversity and local communities?
The source document for this Digest states:
The impact of market instruments in encouraging and achieving conservation of biodiversity is unclear ( R5 ). Although tradable development rights offer the potential to achieve a conservation objective at a low cost by offering flexibility in achieving the objectives, they have been the subject of some criticisms—notably for being complex and involving high transaction costs and the establishment of new supporting institutions. For example, a situation could arise in which the most ecologically sensitive land but also the least costly to develop would not be protected. To date, the TDR has not been designed to target specific habitat types and properties.
Transferring rights to own and manage ecosystem services to private individuals gives them a stake in conserving those CHECK IF DATE IS NOT AN ERROR 23-Jun-2006 levels of institutional support. For example, in South Africa, changes in wildlife protection legislation allowed a shift in landownership and a conversion from cattle and sheep farming to profitable game farming, enabling conservation of indigenous wildlife. On the other hand, the CAMPFIRE program in Zimbabwe, based on sustainable community-managed use of wildlife, has now become an example of how success can turn into failure, with the state repossessing the areas given to individuals and breaking the levels of trust and transparency—a form of instrumental freedom—that are critically needed for these economic responses to work efficiently and equitably ( R17 ).
Payments to local landowners for ecosystem services show promise of improving the allocation of ecosystem services and are applicable to biodiversity conservation. However, compensating mechanisms addressing the distributive and equitable aspects of these economic instruments may need to be designed in support of such efforts. By 2001, more than 280,000 hectares of forests had been incorporated in Costa Rica within reserves, at a cost of about $30 million per year, with typical annual payments ranging from $35 to $45 per hectare for forest conservation ( R5 Box 5.3). However, the existence of direct payment initiatives does not guarantee success in achieving conservation and development objectives or benefits for human well-being. Empirical analyses about the distributive impacts across different social groups are rare.
Direct payments are often more effective than indirect incentives. For example, integrated conservation-development projects—an indirect incentive—designed to allow local populations to improve their well-being by capturing international willingness to pay for biodiversity conservation have in practice rarely been integrated into ongoing incentives for conservation. Overall, long-term success for these response strategies depends on meeting the economic and social needs of communities whose well-being already depends to varying degrees on biodiversity products and the ecosystem services biodiversity supports ( R5 ).
However, direct payments have been criticized for requiring ongoing financial commitments to maintain the link between investment and conservation objectives. Furthermore they have led in some instances to inter - and intra-community conflict.
Yet many success stories show the effectiveness of direct payments and the transfer of property rights in providing incentives for local communities to conserve biodiversity. Effectiveness of payments in conserving regional biodiversity may be enhanced by new approaches that target payments based on estimated marginal gains (“complementarity” values) ( R5 Box 5.3).
Significant improvements can be made to mitigate biodiversity loss and ecosystem changes by removing or redirecting economic subsidies that cause more harm than good. Agricultural subsidies in industrial countries reduce world prices for many commodities that developing countries produce. Lower prices provide the wrong incentives, encouraging these countries to adopt unsustainable agricultural activities that destroy ecosystems as well as push many poor farmers into poverty. Therefore the removal or redirection of agricultural subsidies is highly likely by itself to produce major improvements in ecosystem services and to check the rate of biodiversity loss ( R5 ).
The promotion of “win-win” outcomes has been politically correct at best and naive at worst. Economic incentives that encourage the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity show considerable promise. However, trade-offs between biodiversity, economic gains, and social needs have to be more realistically acknowledged. The benefits of biodiversity conservation are often widespread, even global in the case of existence values or carbon sequestration, while the costs of restricting access to biodiversity often are concentrated on groups living near biodiversity-rich areas ( R5 ).
6.3 How can invasive species be addressed?
The source document for this Digest states:
Direct management of invasive species will become an even more important biodiversity conservation response, typically calling for an ecosystem-level response if the invasive species has become established. Control or eradication of an invasive species once it is established is often extremely difficult and costly, while prevention and early intervention have been shown to be more successful and cost-effective. Common factors in sucВ­cessful eradication cases include particular biological features of the target species (for example, poor dispersal ability), early detection/response, sufficient economic resources devoted for a sufficient duration, and widespread support from the relevant agencies and the public. Successful prevention requires increased efforts in the control and regulation of the transportation of invasive species due to international trade ( R5 ).
Chemical control of invasive plant species, sometimes combined with mechanical removal like cutting or pruning, has been useful for controlling at least some invasive plants, but has not proved particularly successful in eradication. In addition to its low efficiency, chemical control can be expensive. Biological control of invasive species has also been attempted, but results are mixed ( R5 ). For example, the introduction of a non-native predatory snail to control the giant African snail in Hawaii led to extinction of many native snails. Some 160 species of biological agents, mainly insects and fungi, are registered for controlling invasive species in North America, and many of them appear highly effective. However, at least some of the biological agents used are themselves potential invaders. Environmental screening and risk assessment can minimize the likelihood of negative impacts on non-target native species.
Social and economic aspects of the control of invasive species have received less attention, perhaps because of difficulties in estimating these trade-offs. The Global Invasive Species Program is an international response to address the problem. The CBD has adopted Guiding Principles on Invasive Alien Species (Decision VI/23) as a basic policy response, but it is too early to assess the effectiveness of implementation ( R5 ).
Sustainable use of natural resources is an integral part of any sustainable development program, yet its contribution to conservation remains a highly controversial subject within the conservation community. Conserving species when the management objective is ensuring resource availability to support human livelihoods is frequently unsuccessful. This is because optimal management for natural resource extraction frequently has negative impacts on species targeted for conservation. Therefore, care in establishing positive incentives for conservation and sustainable use is critical to successful biodiversity conservation ( R5 ).
Where the goal is species conservation, and where a specific population has a distinct identity and can be managed directly, species management approaches can be effective. However, managing for a single species is rarely effective when the goal is ecosystem functioning, which is tied to the entire suite of species present in the area. Where human livelihoods depend on single species resources, species management can be effective (for example, some fisheries and game species), but where people depend on a range of different wild resources, as is frequently the case, multiple species management is the appropriate approach ( R5 ).
6.4 How do protected areas benefit biodiversity and humans?
6.4.1 Strategies for integrating biodiversity issues in production sectors 6.4.2 Contributions of the private sector to biodiversity objectives.
6.4.1 Strategies for integrating biodiversity issues in production sectors.
The source document for this Digest states:
At the national level, integrating biodiversity issues into agriculture, fishery, and forestry management encourages sustainable harvesting and minimizes negative impacts on biodiversity. Biodiversity will only be conserved and sustainably used when it becomes a mainstream concern of production sectors. Agriculture is directly dependent on biodiversity, but agricultural practices in recent decades have focused on maximizing yields. Research and development have focused on few relatively productive species, thus ignoring the potential importance of biodiversity. Effective response strategies include sustainable intensification, which minimizes the need for expanding total area for production, so allowing more area for biodiversity conservation. Practices such as integrated pest management, some forms of organic farming, and protection of field margins, riparian zones, and other noncultivated habitats within farms can promote synergistic relationships between agriculture, domestic biodiversity, and wild biodiversity. However, assessments of biodiversity contributions from such management reveal little data about contributions to regional biodiversity conservation ( C26 , R5 ).
A review of 36 initiatives to conserve wild biodiversity while enhancing agricultural production demonstrated benefits to landscape and ecosystem diversity, while impacts on species diversity were very situation-specific. Assessing the impact of these approaches suffers from a lack of consistent, comprehensively documented research on the systems, particularly regarding interactions between agricultural production and ecosystem health ( R5 ).
Tropical deforestation at a local level can be controlled most effectively when the livelihood needs of local inhabitants are addressed within the context of sustainable forestry. The early proponents of forest certification hoped it would be an effective response to tropical deforestation, but most certified forests are in the North, managed by large companies and exporting to Northern retailers ( C9, C21 ). The proliferation of certification programs to meet the needs of different stakeholders has meant that no single program has emerged as the only credible or domiВ­nant approach internationally ( R8.3.9 ). Forest management policies should center on existing land and water ownership at the community level. Relevant legal tools include redesigning ownership to small-scale private control of forests, public-private partnerships, direct management of forests by indigenous people, and company-community partnerships. New land tenure systems must be context-relevant and accompanied by enforcement if they are to be effective. They need to include elements of education, training, health, and safety to function effectively ( R5, R8 ).
6.4.2 Contributions of the private sector to biodiversity objectives.
The source document for this Digest states:
The private sector can make significant contributions to biodiversity conservation. Some parts of the private sector are showing greater willingness to contribute to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use due to the influence of shareholders, customers, and government regulation. Showing greater corporate social responsibility, many companies are now preparing their own biodiversity action plans, managing their own landholdings in ways that are more compatible with biodiversity conservation, supporting certification schemes that promote more sustainable use, working with multiple stakeholders, and accepting their responsibility for addressing biodiversity issues in their operations. Influence of shareholders or customers is limited in cases where the company is not publicly listed or is government-owned.
Further developments are likely to focus on two main areas. First, in addition to assessing the impact of companies on biodiversity, important though this is, increasing emphasis will be given to ecosystem services and how companies rely on them. This will require development of mechanisms for companies to understand their risk exposure and to manage those risks. Second, greater collaboration is likely to take place between NGOs and business in order to more fully explore ways to reduce harmful trade-offs and identify positive synergies that could lead to more effective sustainable management practices ( R5 ).
6.5 What governance approaches can promote biodiversity conservation?
The source document for this Digest states:
Governance approaches to support biodiversity conservation and sustainable use are required at all levels, with supportive laws and policies developed by central governments providing the security of tenure and authority essential for sustainable management at lower levels. The principle that biodiversity should be managed at the lowest appropriate level has led to decentralization in many parts of the world, with variable results. The key to success is strong institutions at all levels, with security of tenure and authority at the lower levels essential to providing incentives for sustainable management ( R5 ).
At the same time that management of some ecosystem services is being devolved to lower levels, management approaches are also evolving to deal with large-scale processes with many stakeholders. Problems such as regional water scarcity and conservation of large ecosystems require large-scale management structures. For example, most of the major rivers in Southern Africa flow across international borders, so international water co-management organizations are being designed to share the management of riparian resources and ensure water security for all members. However, political instability in one state may negatively affect others, and power among stakeholders is likely to be uneven.
Neither centralization nor decentralization of authority always results in better management. For example, the power of Catchment Management Agencies in South Africa is constrained to their catchment, but impacts may be felt from outside or upstream. The best strategy may be one with multi-subsidiarity—that is, functions that subordinate organizations perform effectively belong more properly to them (because they have the best information) than to a dominant central organization, and the central organization functions as a center of support, coordination, and communication ( R5 ).
Legal systems in countries are multilayered and in many countries, local practices or informal institutions may be much stronger than the law on paper. Important customs relate to the local norms and traditions of managing property rights and the ecosystems around them. Since these are embedded in the local societies, changing these customs and customary rights through external incentive and disincentive schemes is very difficult unless the incentives are very carefully designed. Local knowledge, integrated with other scientific knowledge, becomes absolutely critical for addressing ways of managing local ecosystems.
More effort is needed in integrating biodiversity conservation and sustainable use activities within larger macroeconomic decision-making frameworks. New poverty reduction strategies have been developed in recent years covering a wide range of policies and different scales and actors. However, the integration or mainstreaming of ecosystems and ecosystem services is largely ignored. The focus of such strategies is generally on institutional and macroeconomic stability, the generation of sectoral growth, and the reduction of the number of people living on less than $1 a day in poor countries. It is well documented that many of the structural adjustment programs of the mid - to late 1980s caused deterioration in ecosystem services and a deepening of poverty in many developing countries ( R17 ).
International cooperation through multilateral environmental agreements requires increased commitment to implementation of activities that effectively conserve biodiversity and promote sustainable use of biological resources. Numerous multilateral environmental agreements have now been established that contribute to conserving biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity is the most comprehensive, but numerous others are also relevant, including the World Heritage ConvenВ­tion, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, the Convention on Migratory Species, the U. N. Convention to Combat Desertification, the U. N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, and numerous regional agreements. Their impacts at policy and practical levels depend on the will of the contracting parties ( R5 ).
Effective responses may build on recent attempts (such as through joint work plans) to create synergies between conventions. The lack of compulsory jurisdiction for dispute resolution is a major weakness in international environmental law. However, requirements to report to conventions put pressure on countries to undertake active measures under the framework of those treaties. An effective instrument should include incentives, plus sanctions for violations or noncompliance procedures to help countries come into compliance. Links between biodiversity conventions and other international legal institutions that have significant impacts on biodiversity (such as the World Trade Organization) remain weak ( R5 ).
The international agreements with the greatest impact on biodiversity are not in the environmental field but rather deal with economic and political issues. These typically do not take into account their impact on biodiversity. Successful responses will require that these agreements are closely linked with other agreements and that solutions designed for one regime do not lead to problems in other regimes. For example, efforts to sequester carbon under the Kyoto Protocol should seek to enhance biodiversity, not harm it (for example, by planting multiple species of native trees rather than monospecific plantations of exotic species) ( R5 ).
Although biodiversity loss is a recognized global problem, most direct actions to halt or reduce loss need to be taken locally or nationally. Indirect drivers like globalization and international decisions on trade and economics often have a negative effect on biodiversity and should be addressed at the international level, but the proximate responsibility to detect and act directly on biodiversity loss is at the local and national level. For threatened endemic species or ecosystems limited to an area within a single country or local administrative unit, the relevant agencies should give high priority to these species or ecosystems, with appropriate support from global, regional, or national support systems ( R5 ).
6.6 What are the key factors of success of conservation actions?
The source document for this Digest states:
Numerous response options exist to improve the benefits from ecosystem services to human societies without undermining biodiversity. The political and social changes now occurring in many parts of the world will have far-reaching consequences for the way ecosystem services and human well-being are managed in the future; it is thus imperative to develop an increased understanding of the enabling conditions needed for choosing and implementing responses. (See Box 5.1 )
Responses do not work in a vacuum. A variety of enabling conditions—a combination of instrumental freedoms and institutional frameworks—play critical roles in determining the success or failure of a response strategy. The success or failure of many responses is largely influenced by the various institutional frameworks in place in a country (CF3, R17 ).
Education and communication programs have both informed and changed preferences for biodiversity conservation and have improved implementation of biodiversity responses ( R5 ). Scientific findings and data need to be made available to all of society. A major obstacle for knowing (and therefore valuing), preserving, sustainably using, and sharing benefits equitably from the biodiversity of a region is the human and institutional capacity to research a country’s biota. The CONABIO initiative in Mexico and INBio in Cost Rica offer examples of successful national models for converting basic taxonomic information into knowledge for biodiversity conservation policies, as well as for other policies relating to ecosystems and biodiversity.
Ecosystem restoration activities are now common in many countries and include actions to restore almost all types of ecosystems, including wetlands, forests, grasslands, estuaries, coral reefs, and mangroves. Restoration will become an increasingly important response as more ecosystems become degraded and as demands for their services continue to grow. Ecosystem restoration, however, is generally far more expensive an option than protecting the original ecosystem, and it is rare that all the biodiversity and services of a system can be restored ( R5 ).
Rather than the “win-win” outcomes promoted (or assumed) by many practitioners of integrated conservation and development projects, conflict is more often the norm, and trade-offs between conservation and development need to be acknowledged. Identifying and then negotiating trade-offs is complex, involving different policy options, different priorities for conservation and development, and different stakeholders. In the case of biodiversity conservation, the challenge is in negotiating these trade-offs, determining levels of acceptable biodiversity loss, and encouraging stakeholder participation. Where trade-offs must be made, decision-makers must consider and make explicit the consequences of all options. Better trade-offs from policies that remove perverse incentives or create markets for biodiversity protection can achieve a given level of biodiversity protection (regionally) at lower cost ( R5 ).
The “ecosystem approaches” as developed by the CBD and others provide principles for integration across scales and across different responses. Central to the rationale is that the full range of measures is applied in a continuum from strictly protected to human-made ecosystems and that integration can be achieved through both spatial and temporal separation across the landscape, as well as through integration within a site. The MA sub-global assessments highlight useful synergies and trade-offs where different responses are integrated into a coherent regional framework ( SG9 ). While some effective approaches will not require quantification of biodiversity gains, quantifying marginal gains and losses from different sources can strengthen such integration and enable one strategy to complement another in a targeted, strategic way ( R17 ).
Society may receive greater net benefits when opportunity costs of conservation in a particular location are adjusted to reflect positive gains from ecosystem services provided and when the setting of biodiversity targets takes all land and water use contributions into account ( C5 Box 5.2, R5, R17 ). Debates about the relative value of formal protected areas versus lands that are more intensely used by people but that conserve at least some components of biodiversity are more constructive when conservation is seen as a continuum of possibilities. Weaknesses of both ends of the spectrum can be overcome by linking them in integrated regional strategies ( R5 ).
For example, an area converted to agriculture can lead to loss of biodiversity but can still contribute to regional biodiversity if it contributes certain complementary elements of biodiversity to overall regional biodiversity conservation. Formal protected areas are criticized for foreclosing other opportunities for society, but an integrated regional approach can build on the biodiversity protection gains from the surrounding lands, thereby reducing some of the pressure for biodiversity protection in the face of other anticipated uses over the region. Many contributions to overall biodiversity protection are made from production landscapes or other lands outside of protected areas, and integration allows these contributions to be credited at the regional planning scale and to increase regional net benefits. However, the ideal of measurable gains from production lands should not reduce the more general efforts to mainstream biodiversity into other sectors; even without formal estimates of complementarity values, mainstreaming poliВ­cies can be seen as important aspects of integration. ( R5 )
6.7 How could important drivers of biodiversity loss be addressed?
The source document for this Digest states:
Many of the responses designed with the conservation of biodiversity or ecosystem service as the primary goal will not be sustainable or sufficient unless indirect and direct drivers of change are addressed. Numerous responses that address direct and indirect drivers would be particularly important for biodiverВ­sity and ecosystem services:
Elimination of subsidies that promote excessive use of specific ecosystem services. Subsidies paid to the agricultural sectors of OECD countries between 2001 and 2003 averaged over $324 billion annually, or one third the global value of agricultural products in 2000 ( S7 ). These subsidies lead to overproduction, reduce the profitability of agriculture in developing countries, and promote overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. Similar problems are created by fishery subsidies, which amounted to approximately $6.2 billion in OECD countries in 2002, or about 20% of the gross value of production ( S7 ). Although removal of perverse subsidies will produce net benefits, it will not be without costs. Some of the people benefiting from production subsidies (through either the low prices of products that result from the subsidies or as direct recipients of subsidies) are poor and would be harmed by their removal. Compensatory mechanisms may be needed for these groups. Moreover, removal of agricultural subsidies within the OECD would need to be accompanied by actions designed to minimize adverse impacts on ecosystem services in developing countries. But the basic challenge remains that the current economic system relies fundamentally on economic growth that disregards its impact on natural resources. Promotion of sustainable intensification of agriculture ( C4, C26 ). The expansion of agriculture will continue to be one of the major drivers of biodiversity loss well into the twenty-first century. In regions where agricultural expansion continues to be a large threat to biodiversity, the development, assessment, and diffusion of technologies that could increase the production of food per unit area sustainably, without harmful trade-offs related to excessive consumption of water or use of nutrients or pesticides, would significantly lessen pressure on biodiversity. In many cases, appropriate technologies already exist that could be applied more widely, but countries lack the financial resources and intuitional capabilities to gain and use these technologies. Where agriculture already dominates landscapes, the maintenance of biodiversity within these landscapes is an important component of total biodiversity conservation efforts, and, if managed appropriately, can also contribute to agricultural productivity and sustainability through the ecosystem services that biodiversity provides (such as through pest control, pollination, soil fertility, protection of water courses against soil erosion, and the removal of excessive nutrients). Slowing and adapting to climate change ( R13 ). By the end of the century, climate change and its impacts may be the dominant direct driver of biodiversity loss and change of ecosystem services globally. Harm to biodiversity will grow with both increasing rates in change in climate and increasing absolute amounts of change. For ecosystem services, some services in some regions may initially benefit from increases in temperature or precipitation expected under climate scenarios, but the balance of evidence indicates that there will be a significant net harmful impact on ecosystem services worldwide if global mean surface temperature increase more than 2В° Celsius above preindustrial levels or faster than 0.2В° Celsius per decade (medium certainty). Given the inertia in the climate system, actions to facilitate the adaptation of biodiversity and ecosystems to climate change will be necessary to mitigate negative impacts. These may include the development of ecological corridors or networks. Slowing the global growth in nutrient loading (even while increasing fertilizer application in regions where crop yields are constrained by the lack of fertilizers, such as parts of sub-Saharan Africa). Technologies already exist for reduction of nutrient pollution at reasonable costs, but new policies are needed for these tools to be applied on a sufficient scale to slow and ultimately reverse the increase in nutrient loading ( R9 ). Correction of market failures and internalization of environmental externalities that lead to the degradation of ecosystem services ( R17, R10, R13 ). Because many ecosystem services are not traded in markets, markets fail to provide appropriate signals that might otherwise contribute to the efficient allocation and sustainable use of the services. In addition, many of the harmful trade-offs and costs associated with the management of one ecosystem service are borne by others and so also do not weigh into decisions regarding the management of that service. In countries with supportive institutions in place, market-based tools can be used to correct some market failures and internalize externalities, particularly with respect to provisioning ecosystem services. Increased transparency and accountability of government and private-sector performance in decisions that affect ecosystems, including through greater involvement of concerned stakeholders in decision-making ( RWG , SG9 ). Laws, policies, institutions, and markets that have been shaped through public participation in decision-making are more likely to be effective and perceived as just. Stakeholder participation also contributes to the decision-making process because it allows for a better understanding of impacts and vulnerability, the distribution of costs and benefits associated with trade-offs, and the identification of a broader range of response options that are available in a specific context. And stakeholder involvement and transparency of decision-making can increase accountability and reduce corruption. Integration of biodiversity conservation strategies and responses within broader development planning frameworks. For example, protected areas, restoration ecology, and markets for ecosystem services will have higher chances of success if these responses are reflected in the national development strategies or in poverty reduction strategies, in the case of many developing countries. In this manner, the costs and benefits of these conservation strateВ­gies and their contribution to human development are explicitly recognized in the Public Expenditure Review and resources for the implementation of the responses can be set aside in national Mid-Term Budgetary Frameworks ( R17 ). Increased coordination among multilateral environmental agreements and between environmental agreements and other international economic and social institutions ( R17 ). International agreements are indispensable for addressing ecosystem-related concerns that span national boundaries, but numerous obstacles weaken their current effectiveness. The limited, focused nature of the goals and mechanisms included in most bilateral and multilateral environmental treaties does not address the broader issue of ecosystem services and human well-being. Steps are now being taken to increase coordination among these treaties, and this could help broaden the focus of the array of instruments. However, coordination is also needed between the multilateral environmental agreements and the more politically powerful international legal institutions, such as economic and trade agreements, to ensure that they are not acting at cross-purposes. Enhancement of human and institutional capacity for assessing the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being and acting on such assessments ( RWG ). Technical capacity for agriculture, forestry, and fisheries management is still limited in many countries, but it is vastly greater than the capacity for effective management for ecosystem services not derived from these sectors. Addressing unsustainable consumption patterns ( RWG ). Consumption of ecosystem services and nonrenewable resources affects biodiversity and ecosystems directly and indirectly. Total consumption is a factor of per capita consumption, population, and efficiency of resource use. Slowing biodiversity loss requires that the combined effect of these factors be reduced.

Virunga.
BERTHA Foundation, BRITDOC Foundation & Violet Films present.
NOW STREAMING.
SUPPORT VIRUNGA NATIONAL PARK.
"Urgent investigative report and unforgettable drama, "Virunga" is a work of heart-wrenching tenderness and heart-stopping suspense."
"Showcasing the best and the worst in human nature, von Einsiedel’s “Virunga” wrenches a startlingly lucid narrative from a sickening web of bribery, corruption and violence."
NEW YORK TIMES, CRITIC'S PICK.
". enough action, pathos, suspense, venal villains, stalwart heroes and endangered gorillas for a dozen fiction films”.
Recipient of THREE 2015 Cinema Eye nominations:
Outstanding Nonfiction Feature.
Recipient of a 2014 British Independent Film Award nomination:
2015 Academy AwardВ® Nominee.
Best Documentary Feature.
2015 Creative Art EmmyВ® Award winner for Best Cinematography.
VIRUNGA is the incredible true story of a group of brave people risking their lives to build a better future in a part of Africa the world's forgotten and a gripping expose of the realities of life in the Congo.
In the forested depths of eastern Congo lies Virunga National Park, one of the most bio-diverse places on Earth and home to the planet’s last remaining mountain gorillas. In this wild, but enchanted environment, a small and embattled team of park rangers - including an ex-child soldier turned ranger, a caretaker of orphan gorillas and a dedicated conservationist - protect this UNESCO world heritage site from armed militia, poachers and the dark forces struggling to control Congo's rich natural resources. When the newly formed M23 rebel group declares war, a new conflict threatens the lives and stability of everyone and everything they've worked so hard to protect, with the filmmakers and the film’s participants caught in the crossfire.
A powerful combination of investigative journalism and nature documentary, VIRUNGA is the incredible true story of a group of courageous people risking their lives to build a better future in a part of Africa the world’s forgotten, and a gripping exposé of the realities of life in the Congo.
From director Orlando von Einsiedel and executive producer Leonardo DiCaprio.
WATCH VIRUNGA ON NETFLIX.
BERTHA Foundation, BRITDOC Foundation & Violet Films present.
A Grain Media Film.
Director/Producer.
Orlando von Einsiedel.
VIRUNGA is Orlando’s debut feature length documentary. It is an apt showcase of his ability as a compelling storyteller with an cinematic eye for striking images and a nose for far reaching investigations.  Having previously directed award-winning films spanning Africa, Asia, the Americas and the Arctic, and covering all manner of stories from a skateboard school in Afghanistan through to the tracking and arrest of pirates in West Africa, it’s no exaggeration to say that Orlando has a bright future ahead of him. He has been particularly lauded for his ability to draw out intimate personal stories and combine them with an eye for powerful visual aesthetics.  For VIRUNGA he has been nominated for an Academy Award, a BAFTA and a Director’s Guild of America Award. He co-runs London based film production company Grain Media.
Producer/Impact Producer.
Joanna is an award winning producer and impact producer at Violet Films; currently the only company in the UK combining social impact strategy and film production. Violet is an ethical consultancy specialising in bespoke outreach campaigns and maximising the social change potential for film and media projects. Joanna has extensive experience in documentary film having directed and produced documentaries covering social justice and politics and has recently worked on some of the world’s most impactful feature documentaries. Most recently Joanna produced the Academy Award and BAFTA nominated VIRUNGA.
Cinematographer.
DOP Franklin Dow began his career at the age of 18, working as a camera trainee for his father. Alongside his studies at the Art Institute at Bournemouth he continued to help out at the family business in London, as well as assisting and camera operating for a series of small channels. In 2005 he graduated with a first class honours in Cinematography, also winning two Kodak Student Commercial Awards. He has since built up a uniquely broad portfolio of work from Drama and Verite Documentary to Commercials and Fashion. Franklin's work has screened at numerous festivals, including Sundance, LFF, SXSW and Camerimage, collecting various awards along the way including Best Cinematography.
Masahiro has over 25 years experience in film and television; a close collaborator with Danny Boyle, he has edited some of his most highly praised films, Shallow Grave , Trainspotting , A Life Less Ordinary and The Beach . In addition he has edited recent features, The Duchess and Bel Ami as well as the award-winning Hi-Lo Country and the feature doc We Are Together (Thina Simunye) .
Patrick Jonsson is a film composer/music engineer and a graduate of Berklee College of Music in Boston. In 2013 Patrick scored his first two dramatic feature films, including Bends , directed by Flora Lau, which had its premiere as part of the official selection for 'Un Certain Regard' at the Cannes International Film Festival where the music was praised in Variety: "Sparse dialogue and haunting music lend an alienating effect; other craft contributions are also excellent." Patrick recently received a nomination for 'Best Original Film Score' for Bends at the Taipei Golden Horse Film Festival. He has also composed music for numerous short films, documentaries and commercials, including the award-winning short film Skateistan: to Live and Skate Kabul which was an official selection at Sundance and SXSW. Additionally he assisted composers on a number of feature films such as Thor, Rise of the Planet of the Apes, My Week With Marilyn, Brave, Gambit, and The Imposter . Virunga is Patrick’s first feature documentary score.
Executive Producer.
Howard G Buffett, CEO The Howard G. Buffett Foundation.
Mr. Buffett manages the Howard G. Buffett Foundation, a private charitable foundation. He oversees a 1,500-acre family farm in central Illinois and farms in Nebraska with his son. He oversees three foundation-operated research farms: 1,400 acres in Arizona, 4,400 acres in Illinois, and 9,200 acres in South Africa.
Mr. Buffett currently serves on the Corporate Boards of Berkshire Hathaway, Inc., an investment holding company; The Coca Cola Company, the world’s largest beverage company, Lindsay Corporation, a world-wide leader in the manufacturing of agricultural irrigation products; and Sloan Implement, a privately owned distributor of John Deere agricultural equipment in North America. Mr. Buffett has served on the boards of Archer Daniels Midland, a leading world food processor; Coca-Cola Enterprises, Inc., the largest Coca-Cola bottler in the world; ConAgra Foods, one of North America’s largest food service manufacturers and retail food suppliers and Agro Tech Foods, a publicly traded food manufacturing company in India.
In 1997, Mr. Buffett became a member of the Commission on Presidential Debates; he received the Aztec Eagle Award from the President of Mexico in 2000, the highest honor bestowed on a foreign citizen by the Government of Mexico; In 2002, he was recognized by the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture as one of the most distinguished individuals in agriculture; In 2005, he received the Will Owen Jones Distinguished Journalist of the Year Award; In 2007, he was appointed a United Nations Goodwill Ambassador Against Hunger on behalf of the World Food Programme; In 2011, Mr. Buffett was awarded the World Ecology Award and the George McGovern Leadership Award; In 2012, he was awarded the National Farmers Union Meritorious Service to Humanity Award, the Columbia University Global Leadership Award, an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters from Pennsylvania State University, the Leader in Agriculture Award from Agriculture Future of America, and the Special Service Award from the Association for International Agriculture and Rural Development; and in 2013, he received the Chairman’s Award from National Geographic Society and the International Quality of Life Award from Auburn University. He was recognized by CIMMYT in 2014 for his contributions to agriculture. He has traveled to 130 countries and authored eight books on conservation, wildlife, and the human condition.
Executive Producer.
Jon Drever is a prolific filmmaker and founder and owner of Grain Media. He has directed hundreds of hours of content across multiple platforms. He cut his teeth in the action sports world, making skateboard films for fun before co-founding the multi-award winning production company Grain Media in 2006.
Predominantly a commercials Director, Jon has directed work for some of the world’s biggest brands including Nike, New Balance and Nestle. His commercials are slick, but they all have a human touch and softness to them.
Jon's first feature as director, SuperBob is currently in post-production and has been in his life for over three years. This project started as a short - written and directed by Jon and was made in a couple of days with one of his oldest friends, Brett Goldstein, and received great critical acclaim.
Executive Producer.
Jess Search, CEO, BRITDOC.
Jess has Executive Produced some of BRITDOC's strongest films including Academy Award nominatedВ Dirty Wars, Who is Dayani Cristal?, We Are Together and The End of the Line . Previously, Jess was a Commissioning Editor at Channel 4 TV in the UK for 5 years.
Executive Producer.
Maxyne Franklin, Foundation Director, BRITDOC.
Maxyne is a Foundation director, heading up the film slate for BRITDOC she has Executive Produced Academy Award nominee The Square , as well a number of award-winning projects such as The Possibilities are Endless double Sundance winners Hell and Back Again and Afghan Star and Grierson winners Moving to Mars and Here’s Johnny amongst others.
Composer & Music Producer.
Original Song "We Will Not Go"
J. RALPH (American born NY; 1975) is a Academy AwardВ® nominated composer, singer/songwriter and producer from New York City whose music has sold more than 10 million records worldwide and reached the No.1 spot on the billboard top 100 chart in over 22 countries. As the founder of the internationally award winning music production company The Rumor Mill, J. Ralph has written and produced the music for numerous Grammy Award winning artists, OscarВ® winning films, symphony orchestras, The United Nations and The President of The United States, Barack Obama.
Described by The Hollywood Reporter as the "go-to producer of documentary film scores", J. Ralph is widely considered by many to have had a profound impact on the medium. Over the last 6 years J. Ralph has written and produced the music for 4 of the Oscar® winning or nominated films including MAN ON WIRE (2009), THE COVE (2010) HELL AND BACK AGAIN (2012), and CHASING ICE (2013) for which he received an Oscar® nomination for the Best Original Song “BEFORE MY TIME” performed by Scarlett Johansson and Joshua Bell.
J. Ralph is the composer and producer of Virunga’s original song “WE WILL NOT GO” performed by Salif Keita, Youssou Ndour & Fally Ipupa. The song is the first ever to feature all 3 African musical legends on the same track and was recorded across 3 continents, 4 countries and in 5 languages.
J. Ralph is a fellow of Yale University, a member of the Academy of Motion Picture Artsand Sciences, and the only composer ever to win two consecutive A. I.C. P. prêmios. Several of Mr. Ralph’s works are included in the Museum of Modern Art’s permanent collection in New York City.
Contact #TeamVirunga!
Últimas do Twitter.
RT @gorillacd: The staff and the gorilla orphans at #Virunga’s Senkwekwe Centre share a unique bond. Andre Bauma describes himself as both… Read More . 15 Feb RT @gorillacd: As 2017 comes to a close, we wanted to say a huge thank you to everyone who has supported Virunga National Park this year. … Read More . 3 Jan RT @gorillacd: It is with a heavy heart that, despite determined attempts by rangers and @GorillaDoctors, Virunga National Park has lost on… Read More . 15 Dec RT @_PraveenBalla: Deeply moved. Just saw the @virungamovie @gorillacd. Hats off to the people, the rangers and the fearless Emmanuel de Me… Read More . 15 Dec RT @Manuel_Bustelo: Support @gorillacd's rangers to safeguard @UNESCO WHS #Virunga. Watch @virungamovie on #Netflix today & #TakeAction htt… Read More . 18 Oct RT @gorillacd: Pictured here is an infant mountain gorilla from the Humba family. Interested in visiting Virunga's mountain gorillas for yo… Read More . 18 Oct RT @weeksbell: Incrediblely powerful film of the battle to save Africa's oldest nat. park and mountain gorillas t. co/FC0pEv5fSu @vi… Read More . 7 Oct.
WHAT YOU CAN DO.
1. Please spread the word about the park and the film.
Really, it’s that simple. Tweet, post, blog, pin, whatever about the film and the issues at its heart. The further we can spread the word about what SOCO International has done in eastern Congo the better chance we have to stop similar behaviour recurring in the future. Here are all our handles and hashtags to help you:
Twitter: @virungamovie - Be sure to include #Virunga #TeamVirunga in your tweets.
2. Sign up to this website.
Please sign up to our website with your email address so that we can keep you updated on new developments related to the issues at stake or things you can do to help protect Virunga National Park.
The Virunga National Park needs continued support and funding. We would ask anyone who has been moved by the issues in the film or who wants to help support the brave rangers of Virunga in their vital work to visit the park’s own website and donate directly to them:
4. Check your investments.
Whether you have a lot of money or just a little, you may be surprised to know some of that may be invested into SOCO International. Check your investment portfolios and assets but also your pension funds. Many of them will tie into SOCO probably without you even knowing. You can write to the company and ask them if they intend to really stay away from Virunga forever and what they will be doing to safeguard the park for the future.
5. Visit Virunga!
Tourism re-opened in Virunga National Park at the beginning of 2014 and continues to go from strength to strength, receiving endorsements from publications including Travel+Leisure, NYT and Town and Country to name a few!
By visiting Virunga National Park as a tourist, you not only enliven trade, you also support the park's clean energy alternative, the Virunga Alliance. Start planning your trip today at visitvirunga.
Check Your Investments.
Many funds and financial investments from around the world tie into Soco International without members of the public knowing.
PDF DOWNLOADABLE FILE.
#TakeAction Tips.
Looking for some tips on how to #TakeAction? It’s entirely up to you what you decide do with your investments, but if you would like to engage with SOCO’s shareholders positively then here’s what we suggest! Write to your investment company’s pension fund manager / ethical fund manager and ask them to:
1. Positively engage with SOCO International in order to safeguard for the future of the park. Your voice within a company is powerful and they should care about your concerns.
2. Ask SOCO International to carry out an adequate independent investigation into all allegations of wrongdoing , accounting for their worrying lack of oversight whilst operating in t he DRC.
3. Ask SOCO International to make an absolute commitment to the DRC government and UNESCO never to explore in Virunga National Park, regardless of its World Heritage Status, but also to commit to an exit plan that properly safeguards the block (e. g. responsible measures to ensure the block permit is not simply sold on).
When you sign off, why not ask the shareholder to confirm receipt of your letter and an outline of how they intend to positively engage with SOCO moving forward?